© Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 53, Number 1, pp 31–44 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2012.01031 Teacher Job Satisfaction and Burnout Viewed through Social Comparisons Tracy Kitchel, Associate Professor University of Missouri Amy R. Smith, Assistant Professor South Dakota State University Anna L. Henry, Associate Professor University of Missouri J. Shane Robinson, Associate Professor Oklahoma State University Rebecca G. Lawver, Assistant Professor Utah State University Travis D. Park, Associate Professor Cornell University Ashley Schell, former Graduate Assistant University of Kentucky Understanding job satisfaction, stress, and burnout within agricultural education has the potential to impact the profession’s future. Studying these factors through the theoretical lens of social comparison takes a cultural approach by investigating how agriculture teachers interact with and compare themselves to others. The purpose of this study was to determine if relationships existed between social comparison and job satisfaction and/or burnout among secondary agriculture teachers representing six states. Findings indicated that teachers were satisfied with their jobs and tended to engage most frequently in upward assimilative (UA) comparisons, leading to inspiration emotional outcomes. According to the Maslach Burnout Inventory for Educators (MBI–E), teachers experienced low levels of burnout related to personal accomplishment (PA) and depersonalization (DE), and moderate levels related to emotional exhaustion (EE). Seven moderate relationships were found between dimensions of social comparison and either burnout and/or job satisfaction. Keywords: social comparison; agriculture teachers; job satisfaction; teacher burnout Introduction well beyond a typical teacher work–week (Torres, Lambert, & Tummons, 2009). As a Teaching is a demanding occupation, at any result, research and professional development level, within any content area. This is partially a initiatives in agricultural education have result of high expectations in relation to state addressed the retention and development of and national standards, and deadlines imposed to school–based agriculture teachers who are increase student learning (Strauss, 2002). committed to and adept in managing a unique However, some would argue that teaching compilation of work–place demands (Mundt & agriculture is even more demanding given that Connors, 1999; Myers, Dyer, & Washburn, the roles of an agricultural educator are multi– 2005). Certainly, by understanding job faceted (Roberts & Dyer, 2004). Additionally, satisfaction, stress, and burnout within the workload of an agricultural educator extends agricultural education better, teacher educators 31 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… may be able to prepare future teachers more Cano & Miller; 1992b; Castillo & Cano, 1999), appropriately and assist those who are currently it is possible that discrepancies might exist in the profession. among faculty members across the country; as To ensure retention of a highly qualified such, Bowen and Radhakrishna (1991) group of professionals within agricultural recommended that comparisons should be made. education, job satisfaction must be addressed. The same recommendation could be made for Within other areas of social science research, job secondary agriculture teachers. How does job satisfaction has been studied widely, often in satisfaction differ among teachers in various relation to qualities such as “productivity, states? Cano and Miller (1992b) opined that performance, absenteeism, and job turnover” teachers who leave the profession likely do so (Jewell, Beavers III, Malpiedi, & Flowers, 1990, because of their lack of job satisfaction. p. 52). In general, job satisfaction is described as Therefore, studying job satisfaction among a an individual’s feelings about his or her job and wide range of teachers across multiple states is dependent on individual attitudes and levels of could have implications for understanding how motivation toward performing tasks associated to retain teachers in the profession longer with a job (Gilmer & Deci, 1977). A satisfied (Walker et al., 2004). worker is more effective and productive than an Discrepancy exists in the literature regarding unsatisfied worker (Martin, 2002). And, job satisfaction of secondary teachers in satisfied workers tend to be more committed to agriculture. Cano and Miller (1992a) found that, their careers (Robinson & Garton, 2006). when considering each facet of their job, Subsequently, job satisfaction can impact agriculture teachers were undecided on their career longevity and tenure. Job tenure, on level of overall job satisfaction. In contrast, average, has decreased from seven to four years Walker et al. (2004) determined that teachers (Gregg & Wadsworth, 1995 as cited in Morley, were satisfied generally with their jobs 2001). In fact, employees are “job hopping” regardless of whether they stayed, moved more now than ever before (Boverie & Kroth, within, or left the profession for another career. 2000). To more fully understand career The authors found that teachers who left the commitment and potential job tenure among profession were just as satisfied as those who secondary agriculture teachers, research should stayed, but the reasons they left were due to a examine teacher satisfaction with their chosen perceived “lack of administrative support” (p. careers. 35) and issues involving their family, which Although numerous scales for measuring job could have led to high levels of stress for these satisfaction exist, the Brayfield–Rothe (1951) teachers. job satisfaction instrument, as modified by An important emotional precursor to job Warner (1973) is one of the most commonly satisfaction, documented in the literature widely, used in agricultural education research. is the level of stress associated with a job. Specifically, this instrument has been used by Specifically, agriculture teachers experience researchers in agricultural education to study challenges that form particular job stressors faculty at higher education institutions (Bowen (Greiman, Walker, & Birkenholz, 2005; Walker & Radhakrishna, 1991; Castillo & Cano, 2004), et al., 2004). Symptoms of stress in teachers can secondary agricultural education instructors include anxiety and frustration, impaired (Bruening & Hoover, 1991; Cano & Miller, performance, and damaged interpersonal 1992a; Cano, & Miller, 1992b; Castillo & Cano, relationships at work and at home (Kyriacou, 1999; Castillo, Conklin, & Cano, 1999; 2001). Teachers who experience stress over Newcomb, Betts, & Cano, 1986; Walker, long periods of time may then experience Garton, & Kitchel, 2004), agricultural education burnout (Troman & Woods, 2001). Working graduates (Garton & Robinson, 2006; Robinson long hours, usually beyond a 40–hour work– & Garton, 2008), and supervisors of agricultural week (Straquadine, 1990; Vaughn, 1990), employees (Barrick, 1989). contributes to the stress level of agriculture Although personal and professional teachers, and leads ultimately to burnout in characteristics data (i.e. demographics) are not many cases. Indicators of burnout are a loss of good predictors of job satisfaction (Bruening & idealism and enthusiasm for work (Matheny, Radhakrishna, 1991; Cano & Miller, 1992a; Gfoerer, & Harris, 2000). Burnout has also Journal of Agricultural Education 32 Volume 53, Number 1, 2012 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… been characterized as an extreme type of role– conferences) to interact (and thus compare) specific alienation with a focus on feelings of themselves to other agriculture teachers on a meaninglessness, especially as this applies to an more individual level. This presents a unique individual’s ability to reach students context in which to study social comparison, and successfully (LeCompte & Dworkin, 1991). implications that such an environment might Those who experience burnout may struggle have on retaining and developing agriculture with finding the desire and motivation to teachers who are more satisfied in their continue in their current profession. Research professions, less stressed, and less likely to by Maslach, Jackson, and Leiter (1996) has experience the phenomenon of burnout. highlighted three important reasons to study The social comparison theory is a theoretical teacher burnout citing, (a) teaching is an framework that could be used to explain how extremely visible profession; (b) teachers are agriculture teachers act because, according to expected to teach beyond academics into moral Festinger (1954), social comparison can be used development to correct social problems; and (c) within a professional culture. According to the meeting diverse needs and expectations of theory, certain emotional outcomes may result in students requires numerous human and financial either positive or negative satisfaction and stress resources. To that end, Maslach et al. (1996) that could lead to burnout. Festinger developed an educator version of their burnout hypothesized that people have the desire to inventory to measures dimensions of emotional evaluate their own opinions and abilities in exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal relation to the opinions and abilities of others. accomplishment among teachers. The results of “For example, a person’s evaluation of his research in agricultural education indicated that ability to write poetry will depend to a large agriculture teachers, overall, are not stressed and extent on the opinions which others have of his are satisfied with their jobs (Chenevey, Ewing, ability to write poetry” (p. 118). Consequently, & Whittington, 2009; Torres, Lawver, & individuals who make frequent social Lambert, 2009). Yet, there are agriculture comparisons should be happy if they believe teachers who are reaching the tipping point of they are better off than those with whom they job burnout due to the job pressures and compare themselves (Wood, Taylor, & demands (Torres et al., 2009). The requirements Lichtman, 1985). of the job and the resources available to do the Social comparison has been intertwined with job are often mismatched, leading to stressful self–evaluation and has affected individuals’ situations and burnout. In addition, teachers self–esteem, even functioning as a coping with higher levels of emotional exhaustion are mechanism (Wills, 1981). Social comparison those who are more likely to experience burnout has been used to manage negative affect (Chenevey, et al., 2009). (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1983) and to affiliate Most of the studies associated with job upward (Collins, 1996). Under stress, people satisfaction and burnout in agricultural education are more likely to compare themselves to those are associated with personal or demographic who are in worse situations (Taylor & Lobel, variables. Another approach may be to assess 1989). cultural or contextual variables. In discussing a To understand the theory, it is essential to related topic — teacher quality — Kennedy recognize that social comparisons can be (2010) argued that education has “succumbed to directional. People can make upward and the fundamental attribution error” (p. 591) by downward comparisons. Individuals engage in overlooking situational or contextual factors that upward comparison when comparing themselves may also continue to affect teacher quality. If to peers whom they perceive are performing this argument is true for job satisfaction and more competently or adequately than they are. teacher burnout, then a different approach is Individuals engage in downward comparison warranted. One approach is to assess how with peers when they compare themselves to teachers interact within the profession of those whom they perceive are performing in a agricultural education. less competent or inadequate ways (Carmona et Agriculture teachers have numerous al., 2006). opportunities (i.e., at local, regional, state, and In addition, social comparisons can be national meetings, competitions, and contextually set as either assimilative or Journal of Agricultural Education 33 Volume 53, Number 1, 2012 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… contrastive in nature (Smith, 2000). Social Social comparison could be programmatic in judgments are based strongly on some context nature, occurring through multiple venues such and the values or standards associated with that as competition in FFA, at conferences, or context (Wedell, 1994). According to Wedell, conventions. As described earlier, emotional “contrast refers to the displacement of outcomes could ensue based on how social judgments away from the values of contextual comparison manifests. It is important to assess stimuli. . . assimilation, on the other hand, refers the culture of the agricultural education to the displacement of judgment toward the profession through the lens of social comparison contextual standard” (1994, p. 1007). For as such a lens may provide rationale for the example, when someone makes a comparison to positive and/or negative emotional results that another whom they perceive as better than they represents the unique context of the agricultural are (an upward comparison), then the education profession. comparison can lead to either assimilative, emotional responses of inspiration and optimism Purpose and Methods or it can lead to contrastive, emotional outcomes of envy and resentment (Smith, 2000). The purpose of this descriptive–relational All types of social comparisons may have study was to determine if relationships existed emotional consequences. People feel relieved between social comparison and job satisfaction when they see that others are doing worse, and and between social comparison and teacher feel envious when they see that others are doing burnout. The following objectives were better than them (Buunk & Ybema, 1997). developed to guide the study: When comparing upward, individuals may be inspired because they feel like they have become 1. Determine the degree of social comparison the comparison target. In contrast, when in which agriculture teachers engage. comparing downward, individuals may lose their 2. Determine the level of job satisfaction of good feeling about themselves because they fear agriculture teachers. ending up in a similar situation (Buunk & 3. Determine the degree of teacher burnout Ybema, 2004). experienced by agriculture teachers. Recognizing that teachers compare 4. Determine the relationship between social themselves frequently to others in the comparison and job satisfaction. profession, research has been conducted relating 5. Determine the relationship between social social comparison to teacher burnout (Caromona comparison and teacher burnout. et al., 2006). The findings indicated that when teachers compare themselves with others whom The population of the study was high school they feel are performing at a lower level, and agriculture teachers from six states (Kentucky, they feel that this comparison is a negative Missouri, New York, Oklahoma, South Dakota, experience, they are more likely to experience Utah). For each respective state, a frame was job burnout. Further research has been identified, which provided contact information conducted to determine if practicing teachers for all current high school agriculture teachers. responded differently to upward and downward Each frame was then scrutinized for errors, social comparison in terms of affect and the omissions, and duplications to address potential intent to work harder (Van Yperen, frame error and to ensure accuracy. Brenninkmeijer, & Buunk, 2006). The findings A random sample was selected from the indicated that practicing teachers respond frames of two states with agriculture teacher differently to upward and downward social populations larger than 300 (Missouri and comparison information. The personal belief of Oklahoma). For the remaining states, all exerting effort to do a job well was correlated to teachers were invited to participate in the study positive affect after upward, social comparison. because the difference between the size of those With consideration given to the cultural states’ populations and the size required for a structure of the agricultural education representative sample was small. In addition, profession, and the close–knit, collegial nature the geographic spread of the states involved was of those within the profession, the social considered a beneficial factor. One state was comparison theory seems particularly applicable. located in the southern region of the United Journal of Agricultural Education 34 Volume 53, Number 1, 2012 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… States (Kentucky), one from the east (New A panel of experts, consisting of faculty and York), two from the Midwest (Missouri and individuals familiar with the agriculture teacher South Dakota), one from the southwest role, reviewed the instrument for face and (Oklahoma) and another from the west (Utah). content validity. Further, the instrument was As such, readers are cautioned on inferring the pilot–tested using 19 agriculture teachers from a results beyond the scope of this study as findings state not utilized in this study. Calculations can only be generalized to the high school using Cronbach’s alpha indicated coefficients of agriculture teachers from the six states who .75 (DA), .76 (DC), .89 (UC), and .91 (UA). participated. Because coefficients were above .70, the An online instrument was utilized to collect instrument was deemed reliable (Nunnally, data and was distributed via email using 1967). HostedSurvey™, a web–hosted software application. The instrument consisted of three Job Satisfaction key sections, as well as a demographic section. Castillo and Cano (2004) sought to The three sections (Social Comparison, Job determine if a one–item measure of job Satisfaction, and Teacher Burnout) are outlined satisfaction was as valid as a multi–item below. measure. The researchers “standardized and compared” (p. 71) the one–item instrument to Social Comparison the multi–item instrument and found no To measure social comparison and the differences existed in scores. As such, they dimensions of upward/downward and concluded that a one–item instrument could contrastive/assimilative, the Social Comparison assess an individual’s level of job satisfaction Style Questionnaire (SCSQ) instrument adequately. Therefore, for the purpose of this developed by Leach et al. (n.d.) was utilized. research, job satisfaction was assessed by asking There were four constructs to this section of the teachers to respond with their level of agreement instrument: downward assimilation (DA), to the question, “How satisfied are you with downward contrast (DC), upward contrast (UC), your job?” The single–item question required a and upward assimilation (UA). DA was aligned response on a rating scale with seven descriptors with the emotion worry. An example item in ranging from strongly dissatisfied to strongly this construct was, learning that another satisfied. agriculture teacher is worse off than I suggests that my situation might get worse in the future Burnout as well. UA was aligned with the emotion The Maslach’s Burnout Inventory for inspiration. An example item in this construct Educators (MBI–E) was utilized to measure was, agriculture teachers who are more burnout. The MBI–E was selected because of its successful than I excite and/or challenge me to specific application to teachers and measurement do better. DC was aligned with the emotion of multiple dimensions of burnout. In particular, gratitude. An example item in this construct the MBI–E measured three burnout subscales was, seeing agriculture teachers with difficult including Emotional Exhaustion (EE), working conditions really helps me appreciate Depersonalization (DP), and Personal my own life. UC was aligned with inferiority. Accomplishment (PA). Emotional exhaustion is An example item in this construct was, I often described as “the tired and fatigued feeling that feel angry that I’m not as competent of an develops as emotional energies are drained,” agriculture teacher as others. Because of the while depersonalization refers to the act of context–specific nature of social comparison, portraying negative or indifferent attitudes items were revised from the original instrument towards ones’ students (Maslach et al., 1996, p. (Leach et al., n.d.) to provide focus to a person 28). The third subscale measures personal comparing him/herself to other agricultural accomplishment which may indicate a teacher’s education teachers and/or their program. SCSQ feelings regarding the contributions they are uses summated rating scales, consisting of seven making to student growth and achievement questions for UC, five for UA, four for DA, and (Maslach et al., 1996). A total of 22 items three for DC. comprised the commercially available instrument, which has been assessed for validity Journal of Agricultural Education 35 Volume 53, Number 1, 2012 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… and reliability. Two factor analysis studies, invited 944 participated in the study, providing a conducted between 1981 and 1984 supported the response rate of 40.57%. use of three subscales (Gold, 1984; Iwanicki & Schwab, 1981). With regard to reliability, Data Analysis researchers reported Cronbach’s alpha reliability Objectives 1–3 were analyzed using means estimates ranging from .72 to .90. and standard deviations for the scaled items. Objectives 4–5 were analyzed using the Pearson Data Collection product–moment correlation using social Using features offered by HostedSurvey™, comparison as the variable of interest. Davis’ a modified version of the Dillman’s (2007) (1971) conventions were used to interpret Tailored Design Method guided data collection. correlation coefficients. For all analyses, only Typically, this method is utilized for mailed descriptive statistics were reported because the instruments and includes five contacts (Dillman, sample was not inferential. 2007). However, because this instrument was delivered via email, the contacts were modified Findings slightly. Immediately prior to the first email invitation, a key contact from each respective With objective one, the researchers sought state sent a personalized message to the teachers to determine the degree of social comparison in within their state. This was done to introduce which agriculture teachers engage. Agriculture the idea of the study to the teachers, prior to teachers engage in upward assimilation (M = receipt of the first email, in effort to increase the 4.58; SD = 0.75) predominantly, meaning as overall response rate. One day after this pre– they compare themselves to someone perceived notice was sent, teachers received the first as better, they engage in emotions relating to invitation to participate. Two additional inspiration (Table 1). Teachers engaged in DC contacts were made with those teachers who had gratitude, UC inferiority, and DA worry in order not completed the instrument; these were sent at of declining succession. one–week intervals. As a result, 383 out of the Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Social Comparison Dimensions (n = 383) Variable or Construct Mean Standard Deviation Social Comparison Construct Upward Assimilation (UA) Inspiration 1 4.58 0.75 Downward Contrast (DC) Gratitude 1 3.94 0.92 Upward Contrast (UC) Inferiority 1 2.42 0.95 Downward Assimilation (DA) Worry 1 2.12 0.84 Note. 1 Based on a scale from 1 to 6, with 1 as strongly disagree and 6 as strongly agree With objective two, the researchers sought (Objective 3), researchers found that they to determine the level of job satisfaction of experience “low” levels of burnout on the agriculture teachers. Agriculture teachers were depersonalization construct and “low” levels on satisfied with their job (M = 6.04; SD = 1.06), the personal accomplishment construct measured on a single item scaled 1 to 7, with 1 according to the MBI–E (Figure 1). However, being strongly dissatisfied and 7 being strongly agriculture teachers experienced “moderate” satisfied. To determine the degree of teacher levels of burnout on the emotional exhaustion burnout experienced by agriculture teachers construct. Journal of Agricultural Education 36 Volume 53, Number 1, 2012 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… M = 20.27, SD = 11.01 Emotional Exhaustion1 16 17 26 27 M = 6.92, SD = 5.79 Depersonalization2 8 9 13 14 M = 37.83, SD = 6.34 Personal Accomplishment3 37 36 31 30 Low Moderate High Figure 1. Teacher burnout scale measured by the MBI–E. Interpretations: 1EE = high (27 or over), moderate (17–26) and low (0–16). 2DP = high (14 or over), moderate (9–13) and low (0–8). 3PA (interpreted in reverse of EE/DP) = low (37 or over), moderate (31–36) and high (0–30). With objective four, researchers sought to interpreting the burnout construct of personal determine the relationship between social accomplishment (PA), higher mean scores comparison and job satisfaction, and with indicated lower levels of burnout; therefore a objective five, they sought to determine the negative relationship using PA indicates that the relationship between social comparison and more one engaged in social comparison the more teacher burnout. Pearson product–moment burnout (on this scale) that tended to exist. The correlation coefficients were calculated to strongest relationships existed with upward determine these relationships. Note that when contrastive (Table 2). Table 2 Correlation Coefficients for Social Comparison with Job Satisfaction and Teacher Burnout Social Comparison Construct Job Satis. (JS) Burnout: PA1 Burnout: EE2 Burnout: DP3 Upward Contrast (UC) -0.40 -0.29 0.44 0.40 Upward Assimilation (UA) 0.35 0.29 -0.17 -0.12 Downward Contrast (DC) -0.37 -0.27 0.39 0.30 Downward Assimilation (DA) 0.16 0.16 -0.13 -0.05 Note. 1PA = Personal Accomplishment; 2EE = Emotional Exhaustion; 3DP = Depersonalization As such, the more that agriculture teachers Discussion tended to engage in comparisons of other, more effective agriculture teachers, and when those Although the study included a large sample comparisons led to feelings of inferiority, the representing six states in all geographic regions more their satisfaction decreased (r = -0.40) and of the country, the results should be interpreted their burnout levels increased (r = -0.29; r = with caution. The study is limited by a 40% PA EE 0.44; r = 0.40). Note that Personal response rate, and not every state was DP Accomplishment (PA) is interpreted in reverse represented. Thus, findings should not be as compared to the other two scales. Downward generalized beyond teachers in the states assimilation elicited the lowest strength of studied. correlation. For research objective one, it was concluded that agriculture teachers engaged mostly in the social comparison of upward assimilation. Thus, agriculture teachers in this study make Journal of Agricultural Education 37 Volume 53, Number 1, 2012 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… upward comparisons of themselves to other cause–effect direction. However, further teachers whom they admire, look up to, or are research is needed in social comparison inspired by. This finding supports the assertion regarding the types of individuals teachers make by Smith (2000) who found that teachers make social comparisons toward and specific upward comparisons with those whom they situations in which they compare themselves perceive that they might be able to achieve socially with others. Of primary interest in similar accomplishments (Smith, 2000). This future research is how teachers frame upward finding could imply that agriculture teachers are (better off) and downward (worse off) in a positive, emotional state as they compare comparisons. themselves with others. It would stand to reason It was concluded in this study that that agriculture teachers who engage in upward agriculture teachers are satisfied with their job, assimilation as a form of social comparison want which is consistent with previous literature positive outcomes for their colleagues and for (Walker at al., 2004). This finding could imply themselves through their admiration of other that individuals who took the time to complete successful teachers. Also, they could be the questionnaire were likely those who would engaged positively by others’ successes. This be more satisfied with their job in the first place. implication would be consistent with research Although teachers are satisfied generally, further that suggests that teachers who engage in research is needed to investigate the specific upward, social comparison believe that, with sources of their satisfaction, conditions, or effort, they too will improve and grow in factors of their jobs that are the most and least productive professional directions (Van Yperen, satisfying. Agricultural education researchers Brenninkmeijer, & Buunk, 2006). Further should also be interested in motivators and research is needed to investigate influences of barriers for individuals who are least satisfied social comparison on motivation, teaching self– with their jobs. It is recommended that efficacy, and measures of teacher success in the professional development programs designed to classroom. recruit and retain agriculture teachers utilize this It was also concluded that some agriculture finding as a means to communicate to the public teachers in this study engaged in downward, that many teachers report that they are satisfied contrastive social comparison toward their with teaching agriculture. colleagues. Thus, some teachers, when making It was concluded that teachers are social comparisons, look down on others and experiencing low levels of burnout as it pertains experience feelings of contempt, scorn, and to depersonalization and personal pride (Smith, 2002). This finding implies that accomplishment; however, teachers are agriculture teachers might scorn and have experiencing moderate levels of burnout as it negative attitudes about their colleagues whom pertains to emotional exhaustion. This finding they feel are not doing as good of a job as them. could imply that while teachers in this study The notion of agriculture teachers engaging in might not be feeling alienated toward their downward, contrastive emotions toward their profession or their ability to perform well as colleagues poses interesting questions. Does the teachers (LeCompte & Dworkin, 1991), they professional culture in agricultural education could be feeling the emotional implications of a create a situation where teachers wear their jobs complex and multifaceted career. Further as a badge of honor and scorn others whom they research is needed regarding the specific sources feel are not performing to the same level? of emotional exhaustion for agriculture teachers. Because comparisons are perception–based, Further research is also needed regarding the each person’s comparison of “worse off” specific factors that help combat emotional (downward comparison) is different. Based on exhaustion in agriculture teachers. Professional this premise, worse off could be merely a development programs for agriculture teachers question of being different. Thus, does the should keep indicators of emotional exhaustion professional culture allow for teachers who in mind and design uplifting programs that perform the job in different ways, or do empower teachers emotionally. professionals scorn others who are perceived as In regard to the relationship between social being different? The results of this study comparison and job satisfaction, it was certainly do not point social comparison in any concluded that teachers who compared Journal of Agricultural Education 38 Volume 53, Number 1, 2012 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… themselves to others and felt feelings of teachers who felt a sense of envy or depression inferiority as a result were less likely to when thinking about more successful colleagues experience feelings of satisfaction with their also felt fewer feelings of personal satisfaction, jobs. Further, teachers who compared more feelings of emotional exhaustion, and more themselves to others and felt inspired by others’ feelings of depersonalization toward their career. accomplishments were more likely to experience Finally, teachers who look down on colleagues feelings of satisfaction with their jobs. Finally, they deemed worse off with scorn also felt less teachers who compared themselves to others personal satisfaction toward their careers, more whom they looked down on with appreciation emotional exhaustion, and experienced more that they were not in that same place were less feelings of depersonalization toward their likely to experience feelings of satisfaction with careers. These findings are consistent with the their jobs. Findings regarding the relationships Carmona et al. (2006) investigation of the between social comparison and job satisfaction relationships between social comparison and pose interesting implications. For example, the burnout. Again, these findings point toward the findings could imply that positive emotions of notion of positivity and its potential others (social comparison) and positive outlook implications. Although it might be no surprise for the self (job satisfaction) vary together. those positive, social feelings and positive One question for further research, and hence outcomes (lack of burnout or greater a limitation of correlational studies, is that from satisfaction) would increase together, again, the this study it cannot be determined which question regarding causation remains. Are emotional outcome (if any) serves as the cause people who are drawn naturally to a profession, or the precursor to the other. Do people who more successful, positive, and satisfied about it, like their jobs tend to feel positive about others and less burned out? Conversely, is ignorance in a profession, or do feelings of connection and bliss? Meaning, are those who are blissfully positivity within a profession lead to higher job satisfied, less burned out and happier with others satisfaction? Further, it was concluded that socially? Regardless, further research is negativity in terms of social comparison and job warranted regarding both positive and negative satisfaction varied together as well. Again, emotions in agriculture teachers and the effects further research is needed regarding the specific of teacher affect on teacher success and student causes of and precursors to the negative, outcomes. Finally, teacher professional emotional outcomes of contrastive, social development programs should be based on the comparison and job dissatisfaction. Further notion of positive psychology and emotional research is needed regarding the social and outcomes and seek to foster feelings of positive emotional climate of agricultural education as a emotions in teachers at all levels. profession. Do local and statewide teacher In looking strictly at future directions for associations in agricultural education foster a this line of inquiry, one of the dimensions this climate of sameness, and what effect does the study did not address was frequency of climate have on teachers? Professional comparison. This study focused on the nature of development programs for agriculture teachers the comparisons only (upward/downward and should take emotional concerns of satisfaction, assimilative/contrastive). It is a dimension that social comparison and burnout into both this study and most of the literature in the consideration. Programs should be designed field do not address. In addition, layering the with those who are less satisfied emotionally in dimensions of frequency and nature could bring mind. about more specific information regarding job Regarding social comparison and teacher satisfaction and burnout. Another aspect this burnout, it was concluded that teachers who study did not address was potential pre–cursor experienced upward, assimilative emotions of variables to social comparison. Perhaps social comparison felt more personal identifying other variables, characteristics, or accomplishment, less emotional exhaustion, and behaviors could enlighten the field on this fewer feelings of depersonalization. Further, phenomenon. Journal of Agricultural Education 39 Volume 53, Number 1, 2012 Kitchel et al. Teacher Job Satisfaction… References Altermatt, E. R., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2005). The implications of having high–achieving versus low– achieving friends: A longitudinal analysis. Social Development, 14(1), 61–81. doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 9507.2005.00291.x Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1993). Effects of social comparison direction, threat, and self–esteem on affect, self–evaluation, and expected success. 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