Indigenous Systems Stories, Studies, within the African-American Community and Statistics of the Resiliency of the African-American Family Aretha Faye Marbley & Leon Rouson Well, son, I’ll tell you: creative ways to survive, retain some of its gun 30 years ago for the majority of White survival of African American families for The African-American Family tion of an oppressive, racist, and sometimes Life for me ain’t been no crystal stair. African values and structure, and fulfill its families, but not for the African-American possible solutions to this massive decline Writing and Telling its Own Story hostile White and Eurocentric society. As a It’s had tacks in it, functions to this society. family and other marginalized families. of the U.S. family. Therefore, in response consequence, the major thrust of the exist- And splinters, Billingsley (1992), speaking to a group Therefore, in response Popenoe, we to Popenoe’s discourse on the decline of ing research on the African-American fam- And boards all torn up, of African-American leaders in Chicago Popenoe’s Discourse on the Decline launch two criticisms of his stance. First, the American family, this article uses ily has been written by others, from deficit And places with no carpet on the floor during a conference focusing on “Afri- —Bare of the American Family he failed to address or take into consid- studies, statistics, and stories about the models, and has focused on the pathology can-American Youth as Future Leaders,” But all the time eration the literature on the cultural African-American family as an example and dysfunction of the African-American I’se been a‑climbin’ on Popenoe’s (1993) thesis on the decline differences existing among and between of American families that survived against recounted a story out of his book Climbing family. And reachin’ landin’s, of the American family highlighted the White families and families of color (e.g., insurmountable obstacles and managed to Jacob’s Ladder about a little African-Amer- For example, earlier literature and and turnin’ corners, major or drastic changes the American Staples, 1999). Second, granted that there carry out their societal functions. ican boy whose dad had read him stories data viewed (and still do view) the African- And sometimes going in the dark family had undergone in the critical period is evidence to support a decline in Ameri- The article employs an indigenous many times about the lion of the jungle. In American family as pathological, that is, Where there ain’t been no light. between 1960 and 1990, and his analysis can families regardless of race or ethnicity systems approach in describing the sur- the stories, the lion was always portrayed using descriptors such as damaged, weak, So, boy, don’t turn back. has since gone virtually unchallenged. He during this critical period, nevertheless vival of the African-American family in as the king of the jungle—a fierce beast. disadvantaged, devoid of American values, D‘Coanu’ts ey oyuou s efitn ddosw int’s o kni nthdee rs theaprsd. argued that this period in American his- for African Americans and other families the face of overwhelming adversity, or One night, after the dad had finished destructive, on welfare, a permanent under- Don’t you fall now— tory saw an unprecedented decline of the of color this phenomenon was not unprec- what Carroll (1998) refers to as mundane reading one of those stories, the little boy class, and single-parent-headed household. For I’se still going, honey, U.S. family as a social institution. Pope- edented (Billingsley, 1998; Staples, 1999; extreme environmental stress. It identifies seemed genuinely puzzled and asked his Its members are portrayed as dominating I’se still climbin’, noe concluded that the American family U. S. Bureau of Census. (2003), and describes the variety of indigenous father the following questions. “Dad,” the state prisons, being on drugs, dying like And life for me ain’t been no crystal stair changed rapidly in those three decades. Particularly disturbing to us as African systems within the African-American little boy said, “Didn’t you say that the cattle in urban streets, becoming young —Langston Hughes, 1994 In essence, “Families lost functions, Americans is that Popenoe provides no dis- community and the role these networks lion was the king of the jungle? Didn’t you parents too soon, having very large high social power, and authority over their cussion on the damaging economic, social, play in sustaining African-American say that he was the baddest, fiercest, and school dropouts rates, delinquents, mur- For the African-American family, life members” (p. 528). Among the functions and psychological effects of the migration families, starting with the Negro family meanest animal in the jungle?” To these derers, uneducated, unemployed, having ain’t been no crystal stair (Jackson, 1991). lost were changes in traditional marital experience of Hispanics and Asians, the re- of yesteryear and continuing up from the questions the father answered, “Yes, son, I high rates of divorce, and being the newest The African-American family has trotted roles and family structure, decreasing location of and continuing saga against Na- Black family of the civil rights era to the did say that.” “Then, Dad” asked the little and fastest growing victims of HIV/AIDS. for over 400 years through a wilderness of fertility and increasing divorce, and the tive American Indians, and the compulsory African-American family of today. boy, “If the lion is so bad, so fierce, and so According to Billingsley (1968, 1993), this racism, poverty, discrimination of all kinds, socialization of children, including values immigration—involving over 400 years of By challenging Popenoe’s stance, one mean, why does the man always win?” The type of research often contributes to the crossing seas of monsters and forests of de- and morals. All of these functions previ- enslavement—of African Americans (Akbar, that is grounded in Eurocentric ideology, dad looked at his son and said, “Son, when distortions and excessively negative charac- mons. Yet, despite the numerous obstacles ously provided family members with nur- 1979; Durfrene & Herring, 1994; King, 1968; we aggressively question how African- the lion starts to write his own books, then terizations of African-American family life. and attacks that society has mounted turance, affiliation and care, and economic Mannix & Cowley, 1962; Yetman & Steele, American families have been treated in the lion will start to win.” For that reason, like the lion in Billingsley’s against it since slavery, we believe that and financial support. 1975), as well as the modern-day apartheid American scholarship. By presenting a Granted, while there are prominent story, to win, African Americans must tell the African-American family has found Popenoe’s conclusion was that, in those in the form of massive incarceration of variety of tools such as statistics, studies, African Americans (e.g., Billingsley, 1998; their own story. 30 years, African-American families, like people of color, specifically African-Ameri- and real-life stories, this article presents McAdoo, 2007; Staples, 1999) writing about Therefore, for African Americans, Aretha Faye Marbley is a professor White families, underwent a rapid decline can men and women. culturally compatible frameworks for un- African-American families, the majority of the big question surrounding the decline and director of community counseling in the traditional family structure. He Further, by focusing on the American derstanding the delivery of educational, literature on African-American family life of the American family is literature that in the College of Education presumed that these changes, in particu- family as a monolithic social institution, social, and mental health services to Afri- has not been authored by African Ameri- highlights the environment in which Af- at Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas; lar the loss of functions, social power, and Popenoe failed to call attention to the can-American families and communities. cans. Rather, the dominant conceptual rican-American families must raise their Leon Rouson is an associate professor authority over their members, led to the amazing resiliency, endurance, and surviv- framework for understanding the Afri- children. Such infromation is critical to in early childhood/elementary education rapid decline of the American family. We al of people of color and, as a consequence, can-American family has been primarily understanding the functions of African in the School of Education reply—nonsense. The massive changes missed the opportunity to look at the based on the value system, epistemology, Americans. Further, such data must also at Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia. that Popenoe is referring to may have be- axiology, worldview, and cultural orienta- MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION SUMMER 2011 2 3 address the resiliency of the African-Amer- and mutually compatible frameworks further by redefining family and its func- terdependence, cooperation, unity, mutual solving personal, spiritual, and vocational these sources show the African-American ican family. In other words, over the last for addressing not only the social, his- tions from a Western/American idea of a responsibility, and reconciliation. problems (Lee et al., 1992; Lee & Arm- family enmeshed in social or indigenous few decades, is there empirical research torical, political, and economic realities nuclear family functioning for the survival In part, due to an Afrocentric focus, strong, 1995; Vontress, 1991). systems. describing how the African-American of African-American family life, but also of a society to one that encompasses an the African-American family has developed Studies of natural support or indig- Although the most prominent, sup- family adequately carries out its societal as frameworks that aggressively wrestle entire village. In addition, Afrocentrism and maintained amazing fortitude and enous models have identified healing prac- portive, and intimate of these indigenous functions? with interlocking agendas, identities, op- is used as a framework for describing and resiliency. This strength and resiliency, to tices in Asian, Native American Indian, systems is the extended family (Billing- For example, researchers (e.g., Cain, pressions, realities, and the marginality explaining the uncanny survival of the a large extent, have been a direct result African, and Hispanic cultures (Das, 1987; sley, 1992; Johnson et. al., 1990; Martin 2007; Cherlin; 2006; Dean; 2007; Dunlap, of the African-American family. African-American family, withstanding of the indigenous support systems. In Kakar, 1982; Lee et al., 1992; Makinde, & Martin, 1978, Spence, 1991; Watson & Golub, & Johnson, 2006; Murphy, Hunter, four centuries of brutal attack. Therefore, fact, these networks are the adaptation 1974; Vontress, 1991). For example, in Mex- Protinsky, 1988), there are many other & Johnson, 2008; Parson, 1949; Rabe, Theoretical Lenses for Studying Afrocentrism becomes the framework for responses or coping mechanisms to the ico traditional healers (curanderos) use entities that have played and continue to 2008; Winton, l995) in the field of family African-American Families understanding how indigenous support external attacks and threats to the nuclear prayers, chants, herbalism, and massages play a vital role in the survival of the Black studies acknowledge the complexity of the systems function in the African-American family (Billingsley, 1998, 1968; Staples & to alleviate mental and physical suffering. family. Billingsley (1968) continues: functions of families, such as socialization According to Sue, Ivey, and Pedersen, community, thereby setting the affective Mirande, 1980). That is, they have sur- In certain tribes of West Africa, healers use of children, including values and morals, (1996), identity is embedded in multiple and cultural tone. rounded, embraced, cuddled, and coddled spiritual forces to eliminate physical and The Negro community includes within itself a number of institutions which may and providing its members with nurtur- levels of experiences and contexts, mak- Structural-functional theory is orga- the African-American family, thus fulfill- mental health problems (Makinde, 1974; also be viewed as subsystems. Promi- ance, affiliation and care, and economic ing it important to respect the complexity nized around the basic tenets of system, ing many of the functions traditionally Vontress, 1991). nent among these are: schools, churches, and financial support. and the value of a personal system, and it social structure, function, and equilibrium. ascribed to the nuclear family and assuring Consider Parson’s (1949) perspective taverns, newspapers, neighborhood African Americans have wrestled with is imperative to recognize the complexity Through a structural functionalist’s lens, a its survival (McAdoo, 1997, 2007; Martin from a half-century ago, discussing the role associations, lodges, fraternities, social these changes in family life since Africans of that system. Therefore, because of the person is part of multiple systems that are & Martin, 1978). the family plays in society and concluding clubs, age and sex peer groups, recreation first set foot on American soil as slaves complexity of studying culturally diverse interrelated and interdependent. Because that families of color, without the help of associations, and small businesses, includ- some four centuries ago. At that moment, families, we introduce a bifocal approach of the behavior of one person affects the be- Help-Seeking Behavior social support systems (Billingsley, 1992; ing particularly barber shops, beauty the very essence of the African family was Afrocentrism and structural functionalism havior of other people and other systems, Das, 1987; Johnson, Thomas, & Matret, parlors, restaurants, pool halls, funeral assaulted. The African family lost func- theories taken together as a more realistic harmony, cooperation, and integration are Help‑seeking behavior addresses the 1990; Vontress, 1991) are crippled and in societies, and various organized systems of hustling. (p. 24) tions, social power, and authority over its and healthy pair of lenses for viewing the critical to the survival of social systems. extent to which (a) people of color, spe- many ways unable to carry out their func- members. For the African family, this tran- African-American family. Thus, a structural-functional ap- cifically African Americans, underutilize tions for either individuals or society. In- The African-American family, unlike sition forcibly altered traditional marital The first theoretical lens, structural proach focuses on stability and resistance mental health services in relation to their stead, African American, Asian American, the White family, has had to make massive roles, the traditional family structure, and functionalism, views families as merely to change. From a family perspective, needs and (b) the interrelationships among Hispanic American, and Native American adjustments in order to fulfill its functions the value of its children. And this assault one of many social systems (e.g., religion, structural functional theory attempts to the factors that explain such underutiliza- Indian communities, unlike White families, in society. From the Parsonian view of the has continued with the high incarceration education, politics, and economics) key maintain homeostasis within the family tion. It is obvious that people of color are faced with racist American ideologies and role the family plays in society, the Afri- rates of African-American women and men, to the survival of society (Parson, 1949; structure. The focus is on the interdepen- not willingly or greatly utilizing formal abusive practices, have had to rely more can-American family was always crippled welfare and school desegregation laws and Winton, 1995). That is, families perform dency and interrelatedness of the family mental health services. Fortunately, for heavily on indigenous systems in order to and in many ways unable to carry out its policies, social work, enfranchisement, ur- important functions through procreation members and how the members contribute people of color, both contemporary and tra- survive and alleviate mental and physical function. Yet, it has succeeded against the banization, lack of employment, dependency and through the socializing of children to the family as a whole, further serving as ditional indigenous systems exist as viable health problems. In short, they have used odds with amazing resiliency. This is due on government food, housing, and medical to the values of a society. The process of a template to understanding the survival healing and helping networks within their these indigenous networks as adjustment largely to the help of indigenous systems. benefits, all factors that undermine the au- socialization (from a structural functional of the African-American family and it abil- own communities. Therefore understand- mechanisms in order to fulfill their func- Chatters, Taylor, and Neighbors (1989) thority of the family. Though it has not been theory), similar to ethnicity, involves ity to carry out its functions. ing the contemporary and historical roles tions in American society. summarized the following demographic easy—no crystal stair, over the years—the shared culture that binds people together. Similarly, through an Afrocentric lens of these social networks for people of color Although these kinds of help may be factors in an article on African-American African-American family responded to Rather than seeing the individual in isola- there is a constant interplay among systems is critical for their good mental health. viewed by some clinical professionals as help-seeking behavior, specific to an infor- these challenges with an amazing resiliency tion, structural functional theory focuses and among subsystems (Billingsley, 1968), Because of the critical role and the crude, primitive, and lacking scientific mal helper network: (Billingsley, 1993; McAdoo, 2007; Neighbors on how people behave and interact with which means that the focus in the African- longstanding success of these systems rigor, it would be foolish for the counsel- Overall, respondents were more likely to & Jackson, 1996). one another in group settings (Turner & American community is on cooperation and among people of color, Sue, Ivey, and Ped- ing profession to discount them. Instead, discuss their problems with women than Granted that political, social, and eco- Maryanski, 1979). group cohesiveness. Similar to a structural ersen (1996) proposed that multicultural as suggested by MCT theory, culturally with men. Respondents consulted moth- nomic ills exist in the African-American According to Winch (1967), the follow- functional approach, the interactions are counseling and therapy (MCT) theory ac- sensitive and responsive counselors can ers at a higher rate than fathers, sisters community, the limited perspective of recent ing are functional requisites for survival circular, rather than linear, and when one knowledge traditional healing and ad- and do utilize such indigenous systems in more than brothers, daughters more than research has focused on dysfunction, thus that are performed primarily in families: part is not functioning properly, the other vocate the integration of those helping order to better understand and ultimately sons and other female friends more than giving a very narrow view which provides replacement of dying members, produc- parts are adversely affected. traditions indigenous in non-Western, non- utilize traditional practices of healing from male friends. Women also had larger a biased and limited framework for acquir- tion and distribution of goods and services, According to Bell, Bouie, and Baldwin European cultures. Specifically, Corollary many cultures. helper networks than men. The litera- ing a broader, truer understanding of the maintaining law and order, educating and (1990), the basic principles defining the 5C of the MCT theory states, “Though the ture indicates that higher socio-economic status is generally associated with larger functioning of the African-American family. training members to conform to society’s African-American worldview are “oneness Western meaning of counseling developed Indigenous Systems support networks that are comprised of With this caution in mind, we have searched values and norms, and creating procedures with nature” and “survival of the group.” from a Euro-American academic setting within the African-American Family both family and friends. The significant for literature on African-Americans families for dealing with group harmony, emotional The principle of “oneness with nature” in the 20th century, counseling has been interaction between age and widowhood written by African-Americans scholars and crisis, and maintaining a sense of purpose. asserts that all elements in the universe available historically whenever individu- Billingsley (1968) saw the “Negro indicated that younger widowed persons observers that would yield a broader, more Therefore, structural functional theory (humans, animals, inanimate objects, and als have helped other individuals with family as embedded in a network of mutu- utilized more informal helpers than did accurate, and healthier account of the Af- serves as a great introduction (though not natural phenomena) are interconnected; personal problems” (p. 21). Accordingly, ally interdependent relationships with the older widowed persons. (p. 673) rican-American family. by design) for those who are not familiar that is, humanity, nature, and the self are we need to examine factors involved in al- Negro community and the wider society” Social support systems have not only There are very few, if any, single with the tenets that underlie the Afrocen- conceptualized as the same phenomenon. ternative help-seeking behavior specific to (p. 5). References to these indigenous served to help the family with its societal theoretical models unique to understand- tric worldview that undergirds the survival The principle of “survival of the group” indigenous or natural support systems. systems (or what Billingsley refers to as functions, but also with the social bonds ing the nature and the complexity of of the African-American family. For that prioritizes the survival of the corporate Indigenous support systems refer to interdependent relationships) can be found that are essential for the maintenance African-American family life. Therefore, reason, we have chosen structural func- whole (the community), which includes those forms of help that occur naturally in multiple places such as history books, of health, both mentally and physically. we offer a combination of Afrocentric and tional theory, even though otherwise largely all Black people, rather than just the indi- within the traditions of many non-Euro- fiction and non-fiction literature, African This is evident in the research in nearly structural functional theories as theoreti- Eurocentric, to set the initial academic and vidual or some segment of the community pean, non-Western cultures (Lee, Oh, & American music and dance, folklore, mov- every aspect of African-American life, that cal lenses to organize the discussion of the intellectual tone for this article. apart from the corporate whole. Cultural Mountcastle, 1992). Historically, these ies, media, research including empirical is, with adolescents (Watson & Protinsky, available literature on African-American Afrocentrism, the partner theory, takes values consistent with the basic principles natural support systems predated Western studies, and the mere existence of an 1988), elderly people (Carlton-Laney, 1993; families. We present them as harmonious the structural functional theory a step of the African-American worldview are in- civilization, serving as a source of help for “intact” African-American family. All of Groger, 1992; Murphy et al., 2008; Luckey, MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION SUMMER 2011 4 5 1994; Perry & Johnson; 1994; Spence, American families are still lagging behind cording to Erickson (1986), what makes At age 40, I finally grasped the magnitude and the wealth of my extended family. That year, I met my father’s children, 1991), single parents (Cherlin, 2006; Deng White Americans in education attainment research interpretive or qualitative is my other six siblings, for the first time at a family reunion in Arkansas. Ironically, my other two families (biological mom & Bonacich, 1991), unemployed (Brown (earning high school diplomas and higher substantive focus and intent, rather than a and adopted mom) were also having their family reunions the same weekend. Surprisingly, all three families embraced and & Gary, 1985), and the upwardly mobile education degrees) and economics (house- specific procedure in data collection. Hence, knew each other well, intermingled well, and claimed me as one of them, but not each other. More surprisingly, I counted middle class professionals ( Denton, 1990; hold incomes, and living at poverty level) in an effort to share intuitive meanings more than 300 family members (siblings, aunts and uncles, cousins, friends’ family) and no one was confused; we were just Toliver, 1993; Wilkinson, 1990). and leading in health disparities. of different indigenous systems and what one big family. The African-American family has The aforementioned studies and it has meant to us, each piece presents historically lagged behind White families statistics bring to light the historical role a descriptive narrative from a unique in annual income. An income gap still indigenous systems play in the mental, experience and perception. We hope to Story Two: exists between Black and White families physical, intellectual, and spiritual survival show through these stories a nonpositiv- The Black Church, My Surrogate Family regardless of family composition. Thus, of African Americans. Following we present ist, interpretative approach to the impor- the need for financial support has always some narratives that provide real testimo- tance of these historical African-American My memories of the church originated in purity and holiness. For it was from this entity that I was introduced to God. been prevalent in the African-American nies of the endurance of African-American indigenous systems. The stories provide The church in my life has extended beyond an infrastructure of brick and mortar. It has been the embodiment of Christ’s love family, including middle-class families. In families, exemplifying those indigenous sys- three upfront and personal illustrations manifested through the saints who have wrapped their arms around me. a study examining mobility patterns of tems. It is our goal to share, perhaps in an of resiliency and interdependency within My fondest recollections of the church began in my grandmother’s living room during Holy‑Ghost filled prayer meetings. Black families, McAdoo (1988) was able unorthodox manner, memorable moments the African-American community utiliz- Although my first cousins and I was the choir, we sang with conviction. Visiting preachers laid holy hands on our foreheads to demonstrate empirically that involve- from graduate school experiences. The fol- ing indigenous systems (extended family, protecting us from evil and praying us into our destinies. No meeting was complete unless grandmother admonished us to “hold ment with extended families was a help lowing narratives serve as a presentation church, and the segregated school system) to God’s unchanging hand.” The biggest treat of all were Grandma’s teacakes that were served fresh at the end of service. My to upward mobility. In fact, the results of of peer mentoring experiences. from the experiences of three African- grandmother started many churches with these prayer meetings. Once established, an ordained minister would pastor these this study indicated that the education We offer these narratives as a tech- American women, including those of one congregations. I am grateful for my rich heritage of faith that has been transferred from my devout grandmother. and achievement of the individuals were nique (from a non-positivist perspective) of the co-authors of this article. Then there was New Day Holiness Church, my childhood church in the heart of the hood. One would think that a person often impossible without the support of the rather than as a research method. Ac- would be filled with fear upon entering the graphite parking lot. On the contrary, the saints at New Day were more than friends, extended family (p. 166). they were my surrogate family. Starting with my pastor, Bishop Taylor, there were a host of role models that nurtured me as An exploratory study by Flaherty, if I was their own blood. These included my Sunday school teachers, youth leaders, and many other saints. At the altar, I ac‑ Facteau, and Garver (1987) of African- In Their Own Words cepted Christ into my heart at the age of nine. These saints knew of God’s love for children and took us seriously as we made American adolescent mothers and their Real Stories personal commitments. When I made mistakes and fell down, I was taught to get back up again. infants shows grandmothers having a New Day supported me through all of my academic accomplishments and challenged us all to pursue higher learning. Much Story One: central place in the caretaking, nurtur- of my socialization was learned through the church. Of course the best part of church as an adolescent was passing notes during The Extended Family ing, managing, and coaching in poor Black the message. However, most importantly, I learned how to respect my elders and was shown how to function in the world. Two families. Watson and Protinsky’s (1988) My extended family included not only blood relatives, but also family friends of the saints, Jackie Martin and Denise Malloy, embraced me unlike any other. They were both 10 years older than I, and were study of Black adolescents indicated that who literally saved my life. My background was anything but typical; from saved, educated, and beautiful. They modeled that if I gave my all to God‑‑spirit, intellect, and body‑‑my life would be highly enmeshment in Black families is positively birth, my survival has been the result of multiple facets of the African‑American favored and blessed. Although it has been 20 years, when I go home, I can’t help but drive by my beloved church and reminisce. correlated with high ego identity (p. 288). community, mainly my extended family. I was born and raised in Arkansas and Even 500 miles from home, while in college, the church was the core of my emotional, social, and spiritual survival. The saints Another study of African-American ad- cushioned by an extended and augmented (individuals who have always been in fed me home‑cooked meals, gave me money, and even provided a roof when I was in need. Several of the ladies embraced me olescents showed that gender differences the family without an identifiable kinship) family that extended over generations as their own when I missed my loving mama. also exist in the selection and utilization of relatives. From a traditional nuclear family’s viewpoint, from my biological To this day, I maintain reverence for the church. It has been the foundation for so many black families for generations. I am of social support systems. Coates (l987) mother’s family, I am the youngest daughter of four siblings (two boys and two honored to have children of my own that I can show how faith in God will save their souls, and finding refuge in the church found gender differences in the structure girls); on my biological father’s side, I am the youngest of seven (three girls, three will provide a haven for them and their own children. It should not be surprising that on a typical fourth Sunday, youth day, and support characteristics of African- boys, and then me); and from my adopted family, I am the oldest of five girls. my heart fills with pride. For it is on these days that I watch my children through tearful eyes sing in the Sunshine Band and American adolescent’s social networks. My biological birth mom (Sareor) fell ill when I was four months old, and she, recite verses from scripture. God bless America and God bless the church, for it is the crux of our nation. my sister and brothers and I were carted off to the country to live with our pater‑ Some of the differences she found were: nal grandaunts, Johnny and Gold. At the time of my birth, of the seven siblings, (a) males and females differ in the number of females and of males they identify as only the two of them were living. Aunt Johnnie who had one son and Aunt Gold, Story Three: network members, in their estimates of who had never birthed a child, together raised three generations of relatives—her Black Teachers, Black Schools—How They Affected Me sisters’ and brothers’ children and their children’s children, and their children. the number of people they know, and in School days in the early 1960s were memorable. This was in part because of the impact all my Black teachers had on my When my mother died, my brother (then three years old) and I (nine months) were frequency of contact; (b) males and females life. Their illustrative style was quite effective, encouraging and admonishing us to set high goals that were achievable. They given to the younger sister, Johnnie, and my older bother, Jaster (age 10) and sister, differ in church attendance; and (c) both stressed the pursuit of higher education in order to beat the odds against us. “Study,” “Do your best,” “Be goal‑oriented,” was Lue V. (age 13) went with the other aunt, Gold. Although we were placed with males and females choose parents to help echoed in our ears. “You’ll have to be twice as good as your white counterparts.” different aunts, 90% of the time, we all lived in the same household. This began with material resources and peers to help At the onset of my junior year, I could not foresee myself ever going to college. But one of my teachers, Mrs. Porter, provided the Afrocentric phase of my growing‑up with an extended family. with emotional needs (pp. 682-683). me with researched information on student loans, grants, and scholarships. This information contributed to and afforded me Aunt Johnnie died when I was 12 and I continued to live with Aunt Gold until In another study, Brown and Gary the opportunity to pursue a higher education. age 15 when our house burned down and relatives moved her to Chicago. For the next (1985) found that (a) the psychological Our teachers seemed to always provide the “extra push” or nurturing needed. These extraordinary teachers proved to be three years, I was homeless; more accurately, I was a child of the Black community. traumas of unemployment are less devas- suitable role models as well. In fact, I never knew that teachers smoked when I was a young student. They seemed to conceal In other words, I lived around, sometimes with distant relatives, other times with tating to those with the greatest resources, their vices quite well. neighbors and church friends such as Miss Sadie, a friend of both my biological those who perceive they are satisfactorily The highlight of a school day for me would be when another one of my teachers, Mr. Banks, lectured us on the hardships mom and my Aunt Johnnie, and Dee, the eldest sister of my best friend, Nita. supported by friends, family members, and and adversities that he overcame to achieve his own goals. General auditorium assemblies were especially motivational and When I was 18, I moved to Chicago to be near Aunt Gold. Due to unusual others, and (b) unemployed Blacks who inspirational. The keynote speakers would be anyone from then‑Attorney Barbara Jordan, Reverend Bill Lawson to black circumstances, I was adopted by my childhood best friend Nita’s Aunt Janice’s are actively engaged in religious activities school board member Hattie White and many other notables. step‑daughter (Mae Helen) and her family that consisted of a father and four (Morrison, 1991) are likely to have fewer ad- “Colored people” as we were called then, chiefly resided in the Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Wards of Houston, sisters. Another unusual relationship was that my friend Nita’s mother and her verse psychological and health reactions. Texas. In those days, there lurked an underlying current called segregation. This practice imposed the separation or isolation Aunt Janice had both been childhood friends of my birth mother (Sareor). Amaz‑ According to the U.S. Department of whites from blacks. It socially separated the races, particularly in schools and housing but in other areas as well. At my ingly, my newly adopted family from Chicago, though not raised in Arkansas, was of Health and Human Services, in 2008 schools, E.O. Smith Junior High and Phyllis Wheatley Senior High, we were primarily issued “used” books. A new textbook still connected to me. African Americans were the second larg- was a real treasure. (continued on next page) est ethnic minority group. Yet African- (continued on next page) MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION SUMMER 2011 6 7 Black adults. Journal of Sociology and Social Jackson, J. S. (1991). Life in Black America. of Marriage and the Family, 55, 527-542. School busing had a different meaning also during my school days. The few Hispanics who lived in our neighborhood were Welfare, 12, 736-754. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Rabe, M. (2008). Can the “African household” bused out of the area to a school unknown to me. On the contrary, we walked the long, dusty miles to our all‑black schools. Cain, D. S. (2007). The effects of religiousness Johnson, G. D., Thomas, J. S., & Matret, M. be presented meaningfully in large-scale There were no school buses to retrieve us. Again, segregation was at work. on parenting stress and practices in the Af- (1990). Race, social ties, social support, surveys? African Sociological Review, 12(2), In conclusion, even though your teachers may not impact you the way mine did back in the day, your liberties and freedoms rican American family. Families in Society, and subjective well-being: Evidence from 167-181. 88(2), 263-272. in education should never be taken for granted. Segregation in public schools in southern states existed for over fifty years. a community study. Sociological Focus, 23, Rubin, R. H., Billingsley, A., & Caldwell, C. H. Carroll, G. (1998). Mundane extreme environ- However, in 1954, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that segregation 341-354. (1994). The role of the Black church in work- mental stress and African American families: was unconstitutional. Several years later, in 1969, the court ordered desegregation of all schools. Kakar, S. (1982). Shamans, mystics, and doctors: ing with Black adolescents. Adolescence, 29, A case of recognizing different realities. A psychological inquiry into India and heal‑ 251-266. There were many demonstrations and sit‑ins led mainly by the renowned Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. His eloquent pleas for Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 29, ing traditions. New York: Knopf. Spence, S. A. (1991). Social support for the Black racial justice resounded all over the country. Let’s not forget any of the people who paved the way and paid the ultimate price 271-284. King, M. L. (1968). Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.: elderly: Is there a link between informal and for our freedoms that we enjoy today. The struggle was not easy. Carlton-LaNey, I. (1993). The last quilting bee. I have a dream. In Annals of America, 18, (p. formal assistance? Journal of Sociology and Generations, 17(2), 55-58. 156). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. Social Welfare, 18, 149-158. These three narratives are real stories that give you an idea about the critical role that the extended family, Black church, Chatters, L., Taylor, R. J., & Neighbors, H. W. Lee, C. C., & Armstrong, K. L. (1995). Indig- Staples, R. (1999). The Black family: Essays and and the segregated school have historically played in the lives of African-American children and adults. These African-Ameri- (1989). Size of informal helper networks enous models of mental health intervention: studies (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. can women’s narratives illustrate the importance of these systems in the success of African-American people. mobilized during a serious personal problem Lessons from traditional healers. In J. G. Staples, R., & Mirande A. (1980). Racial and among Black Americans. Journal of Mar‑ Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. cultural variations among American fami- riage and the Family. 51, 667-676. M. Alexander, C. M. (Eds.), Handbook of lies: A decennial review of the literature on The Delivery of Social, Educational, ally different person. As African-American The good news is that there exists some Cherlin, A. J. (2006). On single mothers “doing” multicultural counseling. Thousand Oaks, minority families. Journal of Marriage and family. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, and Mental Health Services scholars, we simply ask that professionals quality research on Black families that has CA: Sage. the Family, 42, 157-173. 800-803. to African Americans consider cultural differences when writ- simply been overlooked. Ironically, the same Coates, D. L. (1987). Gender differences in the Lee, C. C., Oh, M. Y., & Mountcastle, A. R. (1992). Sue, D. W., Ivey, M. B., & Pedersen, P. B. (1996). Indigenous models of helping in nonwestern A theory of multicultural counseling and Implications for Curriculum and Policy ing scholarly pieces, conducting research, literature that has been written about the structure and support characteristics of countries: Implications for multicultural therapy. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Development and Therapeutic Services providing mental health, offering social dysfunction within and the social ills of the Black adolescents’ social network. Sex Roles, counseling. Journal of Multicultural Coun‑ Turner, J., & Maryanski, A. (1979). Function‑ and educational services, and developing African-American family can actually be 17, 667-687. seling and Development, 20, 3-10. alism. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cum- Multiculturalism, as a dynamic force, policies for and about African Americans. reframed into resiliency and thus become Das, A. K. (1987). Indigenous models of therapy Luckey, I. (1994). African American elders: The mings. has influenced research in education, the The implications are immense and power- useful in developing strategies to offset the in traditional Asian societies. Journal of support network of generational kin. Fami‑ Toliver, S. D. (1993). Movers and shakers: Black hard sciences, social sciences, and many ful, with far-reaching advantages, and as decline of American families. Multicultural Counseling and Development, lies in Society, 75, 82-89. families and corporate relocation. Marriage other areas, and it has paved the way for African-American scholars, we humbly and Given the historic and current tribula- 15, 25-37. Makinde, O. (1974). The indigenous Yoruba and Family Review, 19, (1/2), 113/130. Dean, L. R. (2007). American families past and research that recognizes the validity and respectfully call for more studies and re- tions endured by African-American fami- Babalawo model: Implications for counsel- U. S. Bureau of Census. (2003). Statistical ab‑ present: Social perspectives on transforma- functionality of African-American families. search to be done from an indigenous sup- lies and their amazing strength to keep tions. International Journal of Sociology of ing in West Africa. West African Journal of stract of the United States: The national data That is, it advocates for empirical studies port system perspective as well as research going and “a-climbin,” the focus needs to be the Family, 33(1), 235-236. Education, 18, 319-327. nook, 2002. Naperville, IL: Hoovers. Mannix, D. P., & Cowley, M. (1962). Black car‑ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. that are not based on the realities of a that is more integrated, collaborative, and turned to considering the benefit of indig- Deng, S., & Bonacich, P. (1991). The effects of goes: A history of the Atlantic slave trade, The Office of Minority Health. (2009), African continuing racist, hostile society. Rather, cross-disciplined. enous support systems for all families. The urbanism on Black social networks. Social 1518‑1865. New York: Viking Press. American profile. Retrieved March 25, 2010, if viewed with positive lenses, the data triumphs and remarkable endurance of the Networks, 13, 35-50. Martin, E. P., & Martin, J. M. (1978). The Black from http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/tem- on African Americans’ strengths filters Conclusion African-American family keeps hope alive Denton, T. C. (1990). Bonding and supportive extended family. Chicago: University of plates/browse.aspx?lvl=2&lvlIF=51 through. for all. Popenoe’s question then changes relationships among Black professional Chicago Press. Vontress, C. E. (1991). Traditional healing in As of 2010, there were only a few The strength and resiliency of the Af- from “Is the American family in decline?” women: Rituals of restoration. Journal of McAdoo, H. P. (1988). Black Families (2nd ed.). Africa: Implications for cross-cultural coun- Organizational Behavior, 11, 447-457. empirical studies that looked at the role rican-American family, as revealed through to “Is the American family in an adaptation Duling, G. A. (1997). Oral life histories of one‑ Newbury Park, CA: Sage. seling. Journal of Counseling and Develop‑ of natural support systems. The African- the studies, real stories, and statistics in mode?” The answer is a resounding Yes! room schoolhouse teachers: Voices from McAdoo, H. P. (1997). Black Families (3rd ed.). ment, 70, 242-249. American family has historically utilized this article, speaks for itself. Consequently, the recitation bench. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Thousands Oak, CA: Sage. Watson M. F., & Protinsky, H. O. (1988). Black McAdoo, H. P. (2007). Black Families (4th ed.). adolescent identity development: Effects of the schools (Duling, 1997; Henry & Feuer- this article is only one attempt to reverse References Mellen. 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The Black church as a the family. Marriage and Family Review, 15, Welfare. & Martin, 1978; Staples, 1999), yet there iency. psychology (pp. 79-87). Washington, DC: support system for Black elderly. Journal of (3/4), 115-129. Durfrene, P., & Herring, R. (Eds) (1994). Native has been little research that investigates Even if one doesn’t concur with Pope- University Press of America. Gerontological Social Work, 17, 105-120. Winch, R. F. (1967). The modern family: New American Indians. [Special Issue]. Journal of these factors. noe about the American family’s decline, Bell, Y., Bouie, C., & Baldwin, J. (1990). Afro- Multicultural Counseling and Development, Murphy, S. Y., Hunter, A. G., & Johnson, D. J. York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. For that reason, the indigenous sys- it is true that the American family has centric cultural consciousness and African 22, 88-96. (2008). Transforming care giving: African Winton, C. A. (1995). Framework for studying American male-female relationships. Jour‑ American custodial grandmothers and the families. Guilford. CT: Dushkin. tems emerge as important, powerful, and witnessed some very rapid changes in the Flaherty, Sr. M. J., Facteau, L., & Garver, P. nal of Black Studies. 21, 162-89. child welfare system. Journal of Sociology Yetman, N. R., & Steele, C. H. (1975). Majority critical adaptation mechanisms for the Af- 1ast 50 years. If the American family is to Billingsley, A. (1968). Black families in White (1987). Grandmother functions in multi- and Social Welfare, XXXV(2), 67-89. and minority: The dynamics of racial and rican-American family. Indigenous systems survive and carry out its function, then America. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice generational families: An exploratory study Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (1996) Mental ethnic relations (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & have been relevant, supportive, practical, adjustments must be made. The challenge Hall. of Black adolescent mothers and their health in Black America. Thousands Oak, Bacon. infants. Maternal‑Child Nursing Journal, and necessary survival tools and appropri- is for contemporary researchers and practi- Billingsley, A. (1993). Climbing Jacob’s ladder: CA: Sage. 16(1), 61-73. ate to the social realities African-American tioners to restrain themselves from trying The enduring legacy of African‑American Parson, T. (1949). The social structure of the Groger, L. (1992). Tied to each other through ties people face. Thus, the importance of these to assimilate or transform the ethnically- families. New York: Simon & Schuster. to the land: Informal support of Black elders family. In Anshen, R. N. (Ed). The family: Its networks to the resiliency of the African- diverse families’ values and behaviors to Billingsley, A. (1998). Introduction. In R. B. Hill in a southern U.S. community. Journal of function and destiny (pp. 173-201). New York: (Ed.), The strengths of African American Harper & Brothers. American family needs to be brought to the that of the majority. Rather, there needs Cross Cultural Gerontology, 7, 205-220. families: Twenty‑five years later. Washington, Perry, C. M., & Johnson, C. L. (1994). Families research foreground! to be a healthy respect for the value and DC: R & B. Henry, S. E., & Feuerstein, A. (1999). “Now and support networks among African Ameri- Family researchers can and should strength that diversity offers. Billingsley, A. (1999). Mighty like a river: The we go to their school”: Desegregation and can oldest-old. International Journal of Ag‑ focus on how the African-American fam- From a multicultural perspective, and Black church and social reform. New York: its contemporary legacy. Journal of Negro ing and Human Development, 38(1), 41-50. Education, 68, 164-81. ily has used alternative routes. In mental recognizing the messages in the above Oxford University Press. Popenoe, D. (1993). American family decline, Hughes, L. (1994). The collected poems of Langs‑ health, major efforts should be made to narrated stories, educators and practitio- Broderick, C. B. (1993). Understanding fam‑ 1960-1990: A review and appraisal. Journal ton Hughes. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. integrate traditional healing methods, ners are ethically responsible for knowing ily process: Basics of family systems theory. especially when working with a less ac- how to effectively use indigenous systems Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Brown, D. R., & Gary, L. E. (1985). Predictors culturated, more traditional, and cultur- when working with African Americans. of depressive symptoms among unemployed MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION SUMMER 2011 8 9