Psychology in India Dr B. Sushma & Dr G. Padmaja Psychology forms the basis of every human activity. The scope of psychology is increasingly widening in various economic, political, social, cultural and technological aspects. Though the application of psychology is extending to various aspects of life, it needs to be indigenised to address the dynamic needs in the various socio-economic contexts to make the subject highly relevant to the contemporary society. The present article explores the development of psychology in India in various fields in this context. Keywords: indigenous psychology; applied psychology; political; economic and socio-cultural value of psychological services; student cohort; teaching and research. P SYCHOLOGY is the scientific study of complexity of human nature from the behaviour. Behaviour is all pervasive, so perspectives of theorisation and research is psychology. Psychology is such a done in the West due to the gaps in cultural widening discipline that its usefulness is and social relevance. In this context, ‘Psychol- perceived through out as Physiological ogy in India’ refers to the history and current Psychology, Psychology of Religion, Coun- status of psychology as an academic discipline selling Psychology, Clinical Psychology, or a professional speciality within the country. Health Psychology, Consumer Psychology (Dalal, 2002; Misra & Mohanty, 2002) and Behavioural Economics, etc. No aspect Legends in Indian psychology like Sinha of life is devoid of psychological basis. It is (1977, 1983, 1986, 1994, 1997) have tried to seen in the behaviour at individual and direct the researchers towards indigenisation group levels. It forms the basis for various and to make psychology relevant to the social aspects like primary groups, secondary Indian context and to serve the needs of the groups, etc. Individuals in the society influ- Indian people. Pandey (1988) voiced his ence and in turn are influenced by the argument that to achieve the goal of a truly culture and environment they belong to. universal psychology, the first step required Individual differences thus are evident was the development of indigenous across cultures at micro and macro levels. psychologies in various socio-cultural contexts worldwide. This approach has been Indigenous psychology explored by the likes of Adair, Puhan and Psychologists all over the world have felt the Vohra (1993), Dalal (1996), Sinha (1994, need to examine the ‘indigenous psycholo- 2000) who felt that indigenisation in India is gies’ (Kim & Berry, 1993; Kim & Park, 2005) slowly but steadily progressing. A number of for their contemporary relevance to account critical reviews of the progress of psychology for behaviour, locally and globally, wherever in India have been done (Adair, Puhan & they have the potential utility. India is no Vohra, 1993; Adair et al., 1995; Dalal, 1990; exception to it. India is rich in its cultural Mohanty, 1990; Pandey, 1988, 2004; Sinha, diversity, with variations across the country, 1986) to discuss new trends and perspectives which forms a fertile ground for psycholo- along with the others. Several examples of gists to study and research upon, contribut- the research done on psychological ing to indigenous psychology in India. phenomena from the perspective of an The research in psychology in India has by indigenous approach have been discussed, and large, been dominated by the research for instance, in the third survey of psychol- done in the West. However, there has always ogy research in India (Pandey, 2001, 2002, been a gap felt in understanding the 2004), as well as by various researchers. Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No 2 21 © The British Psychological Society 2011 Dr B. Sushma & Dr G. Padmaja Applied psychology called guru and the student is the disciple. Psychologists in India have been predomi- The teacher-student relationship was unique nantly engaged in teaching and research where the teacher was considered an epit- activities. They teach various fields like Social ome of knowledge and wholeness. Guru was Psychology, Developmental Psychology, considered an icon reflecting the qualities of Cognitive Psychology, Educational Psychol- the Holy Trinity involving creation, mainte- ogy, Industrial Psychology, Psychopathology, nance of wisdom and knowledge or ‘Jnana’ Human Resource Management, Coun- and destruction of ‘Agnana’. He is consid- selling, Health Psychology, Personality Theo- ered the source who helps such that ries among others. ‘universe of knowledge’ is made visible to Apart from the theoretical fields of teach- the student through his teaching. ‘Brah- ing and research, psychologists in India are macharis’ left house, went to gurukulas and engaged in various applied fields like School sought knowledge, wisdom not just by rote Psychology, Counselling Psychology, Clinical learning methods but also by practical hands Psychology, Health Psychology, and Organi- on experience. India is a proud symbol of sational Behaviour. Apart from this, there knowledge with well-known universities are interface disciplines like the ones hundreds of years back like Takshasila, between Cognitive Psychology and Human Nalanda, etc. Computer Interface, Psychology and Entre- The knowledge imparted to the student, preneurship, etc. involved an understanding of his fellow Psychologists are also working in practi- beings as they are in various contexts and cal utility areas of contemporary demand states of being. Basic psychological princi- like soft skills training, where in they train ples, though not as a separate science, were the prospective groups/people in enhancing ingrained in the theoretical and practical their skills and competencies required in life training of the disciplines in gurukulas. skills, like communication, problem solving, Stories, anecdotes were used to help the motivation, decision making as well as inter- student develop different perspectives of personal skills, planning and organisational human behaviour and empathise with skills, etc. others. Psychologists are hired by the marketing With the changing times the teaching wings of the corporate sector, where their methods have also slowly undergone change. services are utilised to develop strong rela- Teaching of psychology in the present day tionships with the clients, so that clients are involves engaging students in the classroom retained and are motivated to repeat the situation. The lecturer needs to stimulate the business with that organisation. Recently students and be a facilitator in developing Consumer Psychology has picked up pace in their curiosities. A two-hour lecture is just a the context of increasing globalisation (and gateway to the huge body of knowledge consumerism) and the services of psycholo- consisting of various competing theories and gists are being utilised in several ways like empirical evidence generated over many designing advertisements based on the prin- decades. As is true with the whole teaching ciples of perception, attention, etc. Psycho- world, we may say that, the enthusiasm for logists also work as content writers/medical subject knowledge generated in the journalists, where in they deliver customised students, continues in their future endeav- writing in specific areas with precise ours. (Sen Hyun Rho, 2008) vocabulary. It is the responsibility of the lecturers to synthesise the knowledge. This implies, Teaching and Learning when teaching any concept to the students, In India there has been a tradition of teach- it has to be explained in the context of the ing since the vedic times. The teacher is whole rather than pigeon holing the 22 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 Psychology in India concept. This is because phenomena are to projects. Case studies and field studies are an be understood from a multifaceted perspec- integral part of practical exposure and train- tive to understand the reality as a compre- ing in psychology. hensive whole. Keeping in view this aspect, at the start of Political, economic and socio-cultural the teaching sessions, the students are value of psychological services provided with the aims and objectives of the The services of psychologists are utilised to lesson/topic to be studied. Present day provide training to budding political aspi- teaching involves incorporating the tech- rants in the present-day modern political nique of explaining/introducing the scenario. Some of the progressive political concept by using the flowcharts, thus linking parties which emphasise the importance to the concepts across the units in the syllabi. advances in technology, social change and This also facilitates citing real-life situations, advancement are planning to train their which form the basis for experiential learn- young political aspirants in communication ing. This helps in widening the knowledge skills, interpersonal skills, etc., to present base of the students and helps them to themselves as SMART politicians relevant to bridge the gap between lab and land. During the needs of the present generations and the seminar presentations, it is suggested to changed expectations. the students to start with the aims, objectives Any human social phenomenon can be and conclude with the implications, so that studied from a psychological perspective. In they understand the purpose of working on developing economies there is a need for the topic, which makes them think diver- rapid capitalisation of indigenous economy gently. Present day gadgets and technologi- to overcome the problem of poverty. Since cal support like PowerPoint, internet surfing women constitute half of the human and various search engines are effectively resource, it is imperative to tap their poten- used by the teachers in many places now, as tial for rapid capitalisation of the economy. well as encouraged to be utilised by the In this context, women self-help groups have students, for widening their horizon. been promoted by the government of India. The students learn the content by In addition to these, NGOs are also associ- submitting assignments, course works, and ated with development of self-help groups in dissertations. They actively participate with rural and urban areas. Psychologists are the teacher in the interactive classroom situ- invited to play an active role in training the ation. This enables the teacher to gauge volunteers/workers from grassroots level to their needs and appropriately tailor their the supervisory level in helping and training lectures keeping in view their cognitive para- the needy. Psychologists are also working on digms. Whenever necessary, queries are exploring the psychological aspects/dimen- directed to the students to expand their sions which promote the women entrepre- knowledge base. They are encouraged neurship in the Indian context. towards seminars and presentation of assign- Given the rise in social entrepreneurship, ments after extensive reference work on psychologists are also working as community topics of their choice. Role plays, stories facilitators, where they motivate, support the from Indian folklore, mythology, anecdotes venturers by organising workshops and from daily life around them and events of making community visits. The workshops are everyday happenings are used and encour- aimed at identifying and improving improv- aged as examples to enable the student to ing the skills in economic, social, functional understand the concepts and relate to them aspects. The venturers are assisted in identi- more intensely. While traditional lab experi- fying the area, in which the venture can be ments are taught, social experiments are also started, by mobilising the existing native encouraged along with fieldwork and resources and utilising their latent potential. Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 23 Dr B. Sushma & Dr G. Padmaja They are provided training in various skills/ management. There is a slow and progres- aspects like goal setting, problem solving sive increase in employing child and school skills, decision making, planning, organising, counsellors in educational institutions. multi-tasking and being a team worker, etc. It is now been increasingly understood Now, psychologists are also active in that there is a need for psychologists to conducting youth oriented awareness and address the children’s behavioural issues in training programmes through mass media school settings and to motivate them to (television, radio and print), wherein there actively engage themselves to meet the is application of psychological principles to targets in educational environment. They improve the quality of life and thrust on self- help not only in positive academic as well as development of the underdeveloped and holistic development of the child, but also in groups lacking awareness of various psycho- early identification of learning and behav- logical issues of life. iour problems and possible help or with a Psychological services are utilised to referral. They are also helpful in teacher dispel certain illogical blind beliefs, which development programmes, parental aware- have been carried over generations. Psycho- ness and counselling programmes given the logists are working towards helping such diversity of problems in Indian scenario. people in developing rational and logical With the growing awareness, there is ample thinking and enhancing their physical and scope and future seen for psychologists not mental health. For example, age-old beliefs only in diagnosis and problem identification related to black magic are still prevalent in but also in contribution to the well-being of many parts of the country thus leading to children, in helping them as they grow with individuals causing harm to self and others. choices related to education and career and Psychologists and social workers along with in counselling at various levels of education, socially conscious volunteers help the people i.e. primary, secondary school levels as well as in unravelling the irrationalities and restruc- college and university education levels. The turing their thoughts and activities in more role of a psychologist is increasingly seen in positive directions. Psychologists help the dealing with academic issues, behavioural volunteers in conducting awareness camps issues and also with reference to addressing related to issues of physical, psychological problems at various stages of education of a health, motivation, self-development related child and subsequently in career. issues and enhancement of life skills in rural, semi urban, tribal and underdeveloped areas. Future of psychology in India Given the situation wherein the application Educational/School Psychology of psychology is widening in India with Researches related to the need for school psychology branching out to many areas psychologists strongly point to the impor- hitherto untouched, there would be many tance of the professional psychological more areas of increasing application. There services in the school scenario owing to vari- are many unexplored areas in Indian ous contexts and psychological problems cultural ethos, which fall under the ambit of ranging from emotional disturbances to various psychological aspects ranging from learning difficulties. (Paliwal, 1984) attention, perception to learning, motiva- With an increase in the establishment of tion, personality, etc. Psychological research schools with international standards in can be done to explore these aspects. The metropolitan and cosmopolitan cities across findings of these studies can be used to draw India, a strong need is recognised for school parallels with the existing concepts. In other counsellors and child psychologists by the cases, these findings can be used to imple- administrators of schools. This trend has ment similar methods to enhance perform- picked up across the schools with private ance in different contexts. 24 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 Psychology in India Qualifications of professional Postgraduate: Once the students complete psychologists the undergraduate course, depending upon Professional psychologists need to have a their interest, they pursue a postgraduate Doctorate in Psychology (PhD) in the field programme (MA/MSc) in psychology. they are working in. For example, school psychologists have a PhD in the area of Integrated Masters in Science: It is an inte- school and educational psychology. Those grated five-year course starting after 10 +2 psychologists who practise as psychological stage, where at the end of the course the counsellors need to have a specialised course students obtain a Master’s degree. The recognised at a university level in coun- University of Hyderabad is presently offering selling skills and applications. this course in Health Psychology. Study of psychology at the university Research programmes: Few students who are Though the demand in India is more very interested in the subject, pursue towards professional courses involving pure research programmes/projects after and life sciences, Psychology as a profession completing a postgraduate programme is slowly picking up. There is increasing (MA/MSc) in psychology or closely related demand as many more universities are open- subjects. Meritorious students who prove ing the doors at undergraduate level to their capacity are encouraged through psychology admissions. More often the fellowships offered by the government for students who seriously want to be profes- furthering their research. sional psychologists choose the subject. Those who are attracted by hearsay and feel Doctoral degree: Those who are very keen in that it is a ‘glamorous’ subject and choose it, research, pursue PhD in psychology with a do not sustain for long and drop out shortly specialisation. once its scientific methodology is felt. Some students select it as a subject helpful in Profile of a typical student cohort administrative services and utilise it in their Age: There are a few provinces in India, day-to-day administration in the long run. which offer psychology at +2 level which Now, universities are also offering psychol- means the student studies psychology from ogy on distance mode and there is a heavy 15 years onwards. The typical age of the demand for the same. The distance mode students who start the undergraduate courses offer contact classes to the students psychology course is 17 to 18 years. This is according to a systematic schedule and also commonly seen across the country in various provide the students with reading material. universities. The same is the case with the students who join in the integrated MSc Psychology courses at university (Masters in Science) which is a five-year Undergraduate: The students pursue a three- course in some universities like the Univer- year undergraduate programme in psychol- sity of Hyderabad, while other students opt ogy. This is usually Bachelor in Arts (BA) in for an undergraduate degree of BA or BSc in psychology. While some universities offer psychology in other universities. psychology as one of the optionals at gradu- The age of the students who start the ate level, some offer it as an honours degree. postgraduate course is 20 to 21. For the post- There are some provinces in India, which graduate diploma courses the age of the offer psychology even at +2 level after 10th students ranges from 20 to 40 years. In the standard/class. case of mature students of the distance education mode, the age approximately ranges from young aspirants of 18 years to senior adults. In some cases even retired Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 25 Dr B. Sushma & Dr G. Padmaja people take it up, so that they can apply it in study in India. It is the same in provincial some way or the other for the service of the universities like Osmania University. society. The demand for psychology either at regular mode or distance education mode is Aspirations of students when they fairly good. graduate Increasingly, the students aspire to be Gender: It is observed that mostly women/ employed in the applied fields like coun- girls opt for pursuing psychology courses selling, clinical psychology, behaviour engi- than men/boys. Indian culture predomi- neering, etc., as mentioned in the previous nantly has been looking at boys as future sections. Usually, the success at the degree breadwinners as a result of which boys more level enables them to choose their next often choose traditional courses offering course. Some of the students who delve professional degree and assure immediate deeply into in the subject, with an aptitude jobs like engineering, medicine. But interest for gaining further knowledge, pursue in psychology is all pervasive. Some boys who research programmes and doctoral seriously intend to pursue psychology as a programmes. profession, do choose it along with other fields like social work, management, etc., as Comparison between globally dominant there is psychological base for all aspects of psychology of the US and of India human behaviour. A few other boys also, Indian tradition believes in the determina- choose psychology as a subject to gain entry tion of the being of an individual by his into competitive administrative jobs. Girls on inner state of being rather than the outer the other hand blessed with lesser pressure circumstances. It believes in looking into regarding career choice, feel free to opt for inner depths of consciousness rather than psychology and go ahead. the resources outside for a healthy state of well-being. However, the mechanistic Socio-economic background: Most of the perspective and the externally oriented students are from varied socio-economic research paradigm with the influence of the backgrounds. The courses are pursued irre- West formed a larger part of the research spective of the religion, economic and social thrust as against the internal orientation in backgrounds. The students may be Hindus, the Indian thinking. This has created the Christians and Muslims or may belong to need for a new paradigm in research, which several other religious and cultural back- the Indian psychologists are pursuing. grounds owing to the varied socio-economic, Psychology in India aims to be intensely cultural, and religious backgrounds in India. practical and applied. It is derived from indigenous thought systems. It offers psycho- Ethnicity: In the last decade, it has been logical models and theories which could be observed that apart from native students, widely applied. For example, a number of international students have been seeking hurdles in the way of removing suffering and admission and pursuing courses in psychology. reaching happiness are identified and means The international students are from African, for overcoming them are suggested. The Arabian countries, Europe, the US, Far East, as role of knowledge (Jnana), celestial love well as neighbouring countries of India. (Bhakti), and altruist action (karma) in the A number of Indian universities have set up deconstruction of the ego are studied. Simi- separate departments to specially take care of larly a variety of techniques to enhance the needs of foreign students. The University human potentials, such as a multitude of of Hyderabad established by the government meditative practices, were developed, which of India, for example, offers one such are some of the fertile areas of research programme, where international students stemming from Indian psychology. By 26 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 Psychology in India including the transcendental aspects of our across the cultures and countries, so that the experience in its coverage, Indian psychol- solutions are tailor-made to the specific situ- ogy blunts the distinction between science ations. In this context, the indigenisation of and spirituality and renders a meaningful psychology has been emphasised by psychol- dialogue between science and religion possi- ogists. Looking from such a perspective, the ble. (Rao et al., 2008) teaching and research of psychology can be Indian psychology has theories, technolo- rooted in the specific socio-economic/situa- gies and techniques for personal growth and tional contexts to make the subject highly well being as well as for enhancing the relevant to the settings. human potential. India is a country with diversity in various social, economic, The Authors cultural, political aspects. All these open up Dr B. Sushma & Dr G. Padmaja new frontiers for serious psychological study University of Hyderabad. and research anchored in Indian conceptual systems (Rao et al., 2008). Correspondence To sum up, the range of application of Dr B. Sushma psychology is widening in the present-day Email: [email protected] society as mentioned above. There is a neces- Centre for Health Psychology, sity of addressing the diverse native needs by University of Hyderabad, taking into consideration the variations Andhra Pradesh, India. PALACE OF THE WIND, JAIPUR, INDIA Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 27 Dr B. Sushma & Dr G. Padmaja Glossary Ajnana:Lack of wisdom. Jnana:Knowledge, wisdom, cognition. Bhakti:Celestial love, attachment, devotion. Karma:Altruist action, work deeds. Brahmachari:Celibate student. Nalanda:It was the world’s largest residential Guru:Teacher, preceptor, a spiritual master. centre for learning in 5th century AD. Gurukula: The place where the guru Takshasila:It was the oldest university in the (teacher) imparts education to the disciple world and was an early centre of learning (student). dating back to the fifth century BC. Holy Trinity: The Holy Trinity are Brahma, Vedic times: It is the period (second to the Vishnu and Shiva in Hindu mythology. 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