Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 27 Changing Preservice Teachers’ Beliefs about Motivating Students Sarah Peterson, Jim Schreiber, & Connie Moss, Duquesne University We examined the effects of an educational psychology course on students’ beliefs about motivating students. After providing opportunities to engage in systematic intentional inquiry of their beliefs about teaching and learning, we expected that students’ beliefs would become more soundly based in theory and research. Following several classes on motivation, students increased their endorsement of theory-based motivational strategies such as promoting cooperation; giving choice; offering stimulating tasks; showing interest and giving responsibility; and making attributions to students’ thought and effort. However, they also increased their endorsement of strategies that emphasized performance goals. Results are discussed within the context of motivation theory, teaching educational psychology, and methodological considerations. In the past several decades our professional experiences (Borko & understanding of motivation has Putnam, 1996; Pajares, 1992; increased considerably as researchers Richardson, 1996; Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, have realized the vital role of motivation & Pape, 2006). Teachers’ beliefs also in student learning. This research, influence how they respond to reform emanating from a variety of theoretical efforts (Borko & Putnam, 1996; perspectives (e.g. self-efficacy, self- Gregoire, 2003; Gregoire-Gill, Ashton, determination, and goal orientation) has & Algina, 2004; Richardson, 2003; provided important implications for the Woolfolk Hoy et al., 2006). For crucial role that teachers play in example, teachers who hold the belief fostering positive motivation. There has that teaching is transmitting information also been a large body of research on to students have difficulty adopting preservice and in-service teachers’ constructivist teaching strategies called beliefs about teaching. Surprisingly, for in recent reforms and reflected in however, little research has examined professional standards (Raths & preservice or in-service teachers’ beliefs McIninch, 2003). about motivation (Patrick & Pintrich, A large body of research has also 2001). This study was designed to documented that beliefs play an examine how preservice teachers’ beliefs important role in the education of about motivating students change as a preservice teachers. Many studies have result of taking an educational documented the now familiar psychology course that helps them “apprenticeship of observation” (Lortie, reveal and challenge their beliefs. 1975): Preservice teachers enter their programs with firmly established beliefs The Role of Teacher Education in based on prior classroom experiences Developing Preservice Teachers’ Beliefs (Ashton, 1990; Ashton & Webb, 1986; Teachers’ beliefs are thought to Brookhart & Freeman, 1992; Pajares, have an important influence on their 1992; Richardson, 1996; Wideen, teaching decisions and practices Mayer-Smith, & Moon, 1998; Wilson, (Pajares, 1992; Richardson & Placier, 1990; Wubbels & Korthagen, 1990). 2001) and how they learn from their Furthermore, these firmly established Spring, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:1 Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 28 beliefs are often implicit and revealing and challenging those beliefs. difficult to articulate (Nespor, 1987; When given the opportunity and support Richardson, 2003; Torff & Sternberg, to do so, these teachers develop beliefs 2001). Research also shows that the that are more sophisticated and well- beliefs of preservice teachers serve as grounded in theory and research, and as filters that influence what they learn a result, they make more effective (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Hollingsworth, teaching decisions (Peterson & Moss, 1989; Holt-Reynolds, 1992; Nespor, 2006; Peterson & Moss, 2007). 1987; Pajares, 1992; Richardson, 2003; Sugrue, 1996; Weinstein, 1989). Thus, Preservice and In-service Teachers’ they tend to graduate with their beliefs Beliefs about Motivation intact (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Pajares, Research on beliefs about 1992; Rust, 1994; Sugrue, 1996; Tillema motivation suggests that preservice and & Knol, 1997; Torff & Sternberg, 2001; in-service teachers tend to view Zeichner, Tabachnick, & Densmore, motivation as a relatively stable trait that 1987). In other words, graduates of resides within students: Students are teacher education programs teach like either motivated or they are not (Holt- they were taught (Darling-Hammond, Reynolds, 1992; Moss & Peterson, 2007; 2006). Nespor, 1987; Patrick & Pintrich, 2001; The tenacity of preservice Peterson & Moss, 2006; Weinstein, teachers’ beliefs becomes problematic 1989). For example, a preservice teacher when aspiring teachers are expected to in one of our classes noted, “My learn to teach in ways that are conception of motivation was limited to fundamentally different from the ways in a simple definition of natural effort and which they were taught. As a result, desire. In other words, I believed that teacher educators have struggled to motivation was largely a natural ability develop ways to facilitate belief change, that one either possessed or did not” since tenaciously held beliefs, if (Peterson & Moss, 2006). Whereas both unsupported by theory and research, can preservice and in-service teachers tend prevent teachers from best facilitating to believe that motivation is determined their students’ learning and motivation. by factors outside of their control In fact, Darling-Hammond (2006) has (Patrick & Pintrich, 2001), they also tend identified the importance of helping to believe that a teacher’s role is to try to students confront their naïve conceptions motivate students, and the way to do so about teaching as one of the three most is with interesting and fun activities powerful challenges for teacher (Blumenfeld, Hicks, & Krajcik, 1996; education. We have found in our Calderhead, 1996; Holt-Reynolds, 1992; previous research that providing students Woolfolk Hoy & Murphy, 2001). There with opportunities to reveal and is also some evidence that novice challenge their beliefs helps them teachers expand upon their previous modify or abandon beliefs that are not beliefs about motivation as a result of supported by theory and research. their teacher education courses. For Furthermore, even when preservice example, Condon, Clyde, Kyle, & teachers hold beliefs that are well- Hovda (1993) found that novice teachers supported and result in effective not only built on students’ interests, they teaching practice, they still benefit from Spring, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:1 Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 29 also provided opportunities for choice motivating students. In addition, we and responsibility. wanted to quantify changes in their Whereas most of the research on beliefs by using a questionnaire adapted teachers’ beliefs has relied on qualitative from the previously mentioned Nolen methodologies such as interviews, and Nicholls (1994) study in which they observations, and case studies, Nolen measured beliefs about the effectiveness and Nicholls (1994) developed written of theory-based motivational strategies. surveys that asked preservice and in- Specifically, our study addressed the service teachers to rate the effectiveness following question: How do preservice of a variety of motivational strategies. teachers’ beliefs about motivational Elementary teachers in their study strategies change as a result of taking an reported that theory-based strategies educational psychology course designed such as cooperation, choice, and to help students engage in systematic attributing students’ achievement to intentional inquiry of their beliefs about effort were useful motivational strategies. learning and teaching? These teachers also tended to agree with researchers that certain motivational Method strategies could be harmful, such as Participants social and public comparisons, Participants included 98 rewarding special privileges to high sophomore education majors enrolled in achievers, and attributing failure to lack educational psychology at a private mid- of effort. Nolen and Nicholls suggested Atlantic university. They were equally that teachers may be able to demonstrate divided among elementary and more sophisticated beliefs when asked to secondary education majors, 80% were indicate agreement or disagreement with female, 93% were Caucasian, and their statements of motivational strategies as mean age was 19 years. Our educational opposed to being asked to articulate their psychology course used a systematic and beliefs through the more open-ended intentional learning process that engaged data collection techniques common in preservice teachers in revealing and other studies. challenging their underlying In our previous research, we have assumptions through the lenses of theory used graduate-level preservice teachers’ and research (Moss, 2002; Moss & papers to provide evidence that they had Schreiber, 2004; Schreiber, Moss, & supported or changed their beliefs about Staab, 2005). The major learning motivating students as a result of taking objective of the course was to develop a course in theories of teaching and an understanding of relevant theory and learning and completing graduate study research operating in effective teaching focused on the application of practice. We wanted students to: (a) motivational theory to the classroom understand theories of human (Moss & Peterson, 2007; Peterson & development, learning, and motivation Moss, 2006; Peterson & Moss, 2007). In as lenses through which to consider the current study, our goal was to extend practice; (b) reveal and challenge this research by examining how an assumptions about teaching and learning; educational psychology course helps and (c) use theory and research to undergraduate preservice teachers reveal evaluate, defend, and/or modify their and challenge their beliefs about teaching decisions. Spring, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:1 Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 30 In order to situate learning within flexibility in the theories they chose to the context of authentic instructional emphasize for teaching the third key planning, we asked each student to principle. Based on the text, the develop a learning project to serve as the instructors could choose to emphasize context for investigating educational social constructivism, self-efficacy, self- theory and research. Learning projects determination theory, goal orientation consisted of a unit or program students theory, personal and situational interest, intended to teach in their future and attribution theory, or some professional positions. Students began combination of these. by writing an overview of the learning In each learning project analysis, project that included a description of the we asked students to use theoretical targeted learners, intended learning goals, concepts and research underlying the major learning activities, and products key principles to analyze decisions of and/or performances used to assess practice in their learning projects. We achievement of the learning goals. asked them to reveal and examine their Throughout the semester, students used assumptions that came to light as a result theories and research to analyze and of their new learning, to consider the refine their projects by submitting three validity of these assumptions, and to learning project analyses, which focused discuss specifically how they could use on development, learning, and theory and research to justify sound motivation respectively. decisions in their projects and to change In order to assist their learning, those decisions when warranted to make we developed a set of key theoretical their project more theoretically sound principles (McCown & Moss, 1996; and research-based. The third learning Moss, 2001; Moss, 2002) that were project analysis focused specifically on broad, integrative statements designed to key principles of motivation. At the end help students synthesize the large of the semester, students submitted a amount of theoretical concepts and final summary report describing their research into a few big ideas. Several learning projects using theory and key principles of learning and research to support their teaching motivation were taught that might have decisions. informed our students’ beliefs about motivational strategies as measured by Instrumentation and Procedures the questionnaire. These principles Students responded to a two-part included: (a) The availability and quality questionnaire developed by Nolen and of models influence student learning and Nicholls (1994). The questionnaire motivation; (b) Self-efficacy and self- included two hypothetical scenarios, one regulation develop as learners set their that described disaffected students and own goals, monitor their own progress, one that described able and motivated and evaluate their own performances; students. The scenario for disaffected and (c) Effective teachers create learning students read as follows: environments that foster intrinsic You are teaching a class (at the grade motivation in all students. Whereas the level you would like to teach) that has a first two of these key principles were few children who lack all interest in clearly based in Bandura’s social learning. They are not at all disruptive. cognitive theory, instructors had But, they daydream, are slow to start Spring, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:1 Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 31 assignments, do not work hard, and are factor by conducting paired t-tests, with falling further and further behind the alpha set at p < .01. other students. Below are some possible things you could say or do to improve Results and Discussion the motivation of such students. Indicate Results for motivational how useful you think each thing would strategies for disaffected students are probably be for improving the summarized in Table 1. Asterisked motivation of these students. factors were significantly different at p The scenario for able and motivated < .01. Based on our key principles, we students read as follows: hypothesized that students would You have some students who are very maintain or increase their support of the able and eager to learn and who following factors: praise, attributing complete all assignments accurately and failure to low effort, promoting quickly. Below are some things you cooperation, giving choice, offering could say or do to maintain (or even stimulating tasks, showing interest and improve) the motivation of these giving responsibility, and attributing students. Indicate how useful you think accomplishments to thought and effort. each thing would be for keeping these We hypothesized that they would students well- motivated. decrease their support for using task- Following each scenario, extrinsic rewards. students rated the effectiveness of As hypothesized, students motivational strategies on a 5-point scale increased their endorsement of (5 = very useful, 3 = neutral, 1 = very promoting cooperation, giving choices, harmful). The lists of motivational offering stimulating tasks, and showing strategies were based on interest and giving responsibility. All of recommendations by researchers and these strategies were supported by textbook authors (40 items for theories that were emphasized in our disaffected students and 33 items for educational psychology class. Also as able and motivated students). Students expected, students did not increase their responded to the questionnaire during endorsement of using task extrinsic the first and last week of the semester. rewards. Because our key principles emphasized the benefits of intrinsic Data Analyses motivation, we did not expect them to Using factors from the Nolen and increase their endorsement. It is also Nicholls (1994) study, we calculated interesting to note, however, that they pre- and posttest scores for each factor: did not decrease in their endorsement of praise, attributing failure to low effort, task extrinsic rewards as we negative reinforcement for task hypothesized. This result may be due to completion, using task extrinsic rewards, the fact that the textbook (Ormrod, 2006) promoting cooperation, giving choice, acknowledges that extrinsic rewards are offering stimulating tasks, showing sometimes necessary and can be used in interest and giving responsibility, ways that do not diminish intrinsic attributing accomplishments to thought motivation. It is also possible that some and effort, and minimizing pressure. We of the instructors endorsed the use of then tested for significant differences extrinsic rewards. between pre- and posttest scores for each Spring, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:1 Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 32 Table 1. Beliefs about Motivational Strategies for Disaffected Students Pretest Posttest Motivational Strategy N min max M SD N min max M SD Praise 98 4.00 14.00 9.07 2.22 85 4.00 15.00 9.33 2.45 Attribute failure to low effort 94 7.00 28.00 16.79 4.54 82 7.00 32.00 16.39 4.65 Negative reinforcement for 97 3.00 14.00 7.49 2.21 83 3.00 14.00 7.54 2.31 task completion Use task- extrinsic rewards 96 5.00 19.00 12.43 2.66 82 4.00 20.00 11.94 3.23 Promote cooperation* 97 6.00 15.00 1.76 1.97 84 10.00 15.00 13.02 1.47 Give choice* 98 6.00 19.00 13.55 2.87 84 9.00 20.00 15.48 2.51 Offer stimulating tasks* 98 5.00 10.00 7.58 1.32 83 4.00 10.00 8.27 1.34 Show interest and give 98 10.00 20.00 15.82 2.14 84 13.00 20.00 17.07 1.71 responsibility* Attribute thought and effort 98 10.00 20.00 16.05 7 83 12.00 20.00 16.43 2.06 Minimize pressure 96 4.00 15.00 9.58 2.17 83 7.00 15.00 10.07 1.82 Note. *Means differed significantly at p < .01 Contrary to our hypotheses, students as “good boy/girl.” Given that students did not increase their many of our students were secondary endorsement of attributional strategies. majors, they may have objected to We believe this result is most likely calling students good boys and girls. because instructors reported not having In summary, our results for adequate time to address attribution beliefs about motivating disaffected theory. In addition, the wording of the students showed that our preservice attribution items did not make it readily teachers increased in their endorsement apparent that these strategies were based of four strategies that we expected to on attribution theory. For example, one increase. Even though they did not of the items for attributing to failure to increase their endorsement of using low effort stated, “Tell them, ‘You will extrinsic rewards, they also did not have to do better if you are going to get a decrease. good job when you leave school.’ ” One Results for motivational of the items for attribute thought and strategies for able and motivated effort stated: “Occasionally give them a students are summarized in Table 2. smile or a pat on the back when they are Pairs of means that are shaded were trying hard.” It is not surprising that significantly different at p < .01. Based students who had perhaps been on our key principles, we hypothesized introduced only briefly to attribution that students would increase their theory would use what they had learned endorsement of praising ability and to make decisions about how strongly effort, offering stimulating tasks, they would endorse these strategies. attributing thought and effort, promoting Contrary to our hypothesis, students also cooperation, and offering choice. We did not increase their endorsement of hypothesized that students would using praise. We believe that this is most decrease their endorsement of publicized likely due to the wording of two items in superior performance. this factor, both of which refer to Spring, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:1 Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 33 Table 2. Beliefs about Motivational Strategies for Able and Motivated Students Pretest Posttest Motivational Strategy N min max M SD N min max M SD Publicize superior performance* 98 3.00 12.00 6.99 2.07 85 3.00 14.00 7.98 2.50 Praise ability and effort 95 5.00 19.00 11.05 3.27 84 5.00 23.00 11.24 3.94 Use task-extrinsic rewards 98 4.00 18.00 10.97 3.30 85 4.00 19.00 10.94 3.33 Offer stimulating tasks* 97 9.00 20.00 15.61 2.36 85 8.00 20.00 16.19 2.30 Attribute thought and effort* 98 3.00 15.00 10.51 2.30 85 3.00 15.00 11.01 2.67 Promote cooperation* 98 9.00 25.00 19.91 2.95 84 5.00 25.00 20.80 3.14 Offer choice* 98 3.00 14.00 9.81 2.41 85 3.00 15.00 11.49 2.55 Enter academic competitions* 98 3.00 5.00 4.29 0.67 85 3.00 5.00 4.53 0.65 Note. *Means differed significantly at p < .01 As we hypothesized, students instructors’ own implicit assumptions increased their endorsement of offering about the value of various motivational stimulating tasks, attributing thought and strategies. effort, promoting cooperation, and Our hypothesis that students offering choice. These strategies are would increase their endorsement of supported by theories such as attribution praising ability and effort was not theory, social constructivism, and supported. However, again we found intrinsic motivation theory, and results that the wording of the items may not confirmed our expectations. Students have accurately reflected what students also increased their endorsement of had learned about attributions to ability publicizing superior performance. and effort. For example, one item stated, Because this strategy promotes “Tell them, ‘I’m so glad that you aren’t performance goals rather than mastery lazy.’ ” Even though we hoped that our goals, we had hypothesized that students’ preservice teachers would endorse endorsement of this strategy would strategies of making attributions to decrease. At the same time, it should be ability and effort, we would not have noted that in spite of the increase, our hoped that they would endorse this students’ endorsement of these items specific item as an acceptable way of still remained lower than all other praising ability and effort. strategies with the exception of entering As with strategies for motivating academic competitions. There are disaffected students, we hypothesized several reasons for the unexpected that we would see a decrease in increase in endorsement of this strategy. endorsement of using task-extrinsic First, students may have developed rewards since our key principles misunderstandings about goal emphasized the benefits of intrinsic orientation theory due to time constraints motivation. This hypothesis was not in addressing the complexities of supported, but our students did not motivation. On average, the instructors increase their endorsement of using task- devoted two or three class periods to extrinsic rewards for maintaining motivation. Students’ understanding motivation in able and motivated might have also varied due to differences students. All of the items in this factor among instructors in emphasis placed on are clear with respect to offering task- motivation theories. Their understanding extrinsic rewards, so we must assume was also likely dependent on the that our students’ beliefs were not Spring, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:1 Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 34 influenced by their instructors. The than performance goals. This example textbook devoted two paragraphs to illustrates one of the limitations in using ways in which extrinsic reinforcers structured questionnaire items to should be used only selectively, so it is understand students’ beliefs about possible that the results for this factor motivation. reflect the conditional recommendations Results of this study have concerning extrinsic reinforcers (Ormrod, implications for the methods used in 2006). future research on belief change in In summary, results for beliefs preservice education. First, we suggest about motivating able and motivated that researchers examine the match students were mixed with respect to our between the methods they use to capture hypotheses. Although students endorsed preservice teachers’ beliefs about issues several strategies that we would have of motivation and the utility of those expected and hoped for, they also methods to uncover sophisticated and endorsed publicizing superior nuanced understandings. In a class such performance, a strategy which we had as our educational psychology course hoped would decrease because it where students learn to articulate emphasizes performance goals. theoretical support for their teaching Looking across the results for decisions, the qualitative methodologies both disaffected and motivated able used in much of the research on teachers’ students, we note that students did not beliefs are more likely to capture the rich significantly decrease their endorsement nuances of our students’ learning. This is of any motivational strategies. This especially true given the fact that our suggests the possibility that in one students were accustomed to articulating semester of instruction using our their beliefs in relation to an authentic theoretical framework, students are more context—a learning project that they likely to strengthen their existing beliefs designed and analyzed in detail. Our than they are to abandon them. This students might have produced more result is consistent with previous evidence, or at least richer evidence, of research showing that it is difficult to belief change if they were able to change beliefs in just one semester respond to questions situated in a more (Wideen et al., 1998). Another realistic teaching situation. possibility is that the questionnaire items However, we also know from our were not sensitive to the nuances of how experiences that regardless of the our students would use theory and particular research method used, many research to support effective decisions of students have difficulty articulating their motivational teaching practice. For beliefs, so it may be valuable to combine example, students in our class might methods. For example, students might be continue to endorse the task-extrinsic asked to respond to statements such as reward item, “Give them stars or stickers those in the Nolen and Nicholls (1994) for improved effort or performance.” questionnaire, but also to add a brief However, after learning about goal rationale for their response. Another orientation theory, they might explain possibility is to have students respond to their response by pointing out that strategies embedded in rich and detailed emphasizing improvement would be one scenarios. Even with a mixed methods way to encourage mastery goals rather approach, it is important that strategy Spring, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:1 Changing Preservice Teacher’s Beliefs 35 statements be written in detailed and beliefs in an unintended direction or unambiguous language that are clearly develop misunderstandings, as in the supported or not supported by case of endorsing publicized superior educational theory and research. Given performance. These findings point to the complexities of fostering motivation specific areas where we must become in diverse students, this is not an easy increasingly vigilant in checking the task. However, the potential benefits to soundness of our students’ beliefs, the preparation of quality teachers make particularly when we are attempting to it a worthwhile endeavor. foster belief change. Our results also Our results also have important highlight the critical need for us as implications for teaching educational teacher educators to carefully consider psychology. Because we used an how we can best help our students existing questionnaire, some of the examine their beliefs about motivation in motivational strategies did not reflect ways that help them clearly understand what we teach, sometimes making it the complexities involved in using sound difficult to draw conclusions about our motivational practices. Finally, our students’ beliefs about motivation as a results point to the need to develop ways result of our teaching. Even so, our to capture and analyze the beliefs that results have provided useful information our students hold about the complexities with which to stimulate further of motivating students. discussion among colleagues about our priorities for student learning given the short amount of time that can be devoted References to motivation (or any other important Ashton, P. T. (1990). Editorial. Journal topic in educational psychology). With of Teacher Education, 44(1), 2. greater clarity on the beliefs we wish to Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. target, we can improve the ways in (1986). Making a difference: which we foster, capture, and assess Teachers’ sense of efficacy and these beliefs. student achievement. 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