Paul A. Winter, Beverly C. Keepers Planning and Changing Joseph P. Petrosko, P. Diane Ricciardi Vol. 36, No. 1&2, 2005, pp. 104–119 RECRUITINGTEACHERS INTO ACAREER AS SCHOOL COUNSELOR IN ASCHOOLREFORM ENVIRONMENT Introduction One of the most critical responsibilities accorded to educational leaders and administrators is the task of planning the staffing of schools and school districts with the qualified professionals required to deliver high quality educational programs (Rebore, 2001; Young & Castetter, 2004). However, recruiting qualified teachers, school counselors, and administrators is increasingly problematic because of the large number of retirements occurring among members of the post-World War II “baby boom” generation (U.S. Department of Labor, 2000). Despite the increas- ing challenges posed by personnel recruitment, many school districts still fail to give this important administrative task the attention and planning it deserves. As Rebore (2001) cautioned, “[i]t is a mistake to assume that the correct mix of people will be available to fill vacancies without making a concerted effort to find the most qualified individuals to fill specific human resource needs” (p. 91). This study addressed recruiting qualified school counselors to staff schools in the 27th largest school district in the United States, a dis- trict located in a state (Kentucky) undergoing systemic school reform that requires school counselors to be key players in assisting teachers and administrators in the task of improving student achievement. Recruitment officials at the research site commissioned the researchers to undertake this investigation because of the growing difficulty experienced by district recruiters in generating adequate pools of qualified applicants to fill coun- selor vacancies, especially at the high school level. In the recruitment cycle prior to this study, district recruiters failed to fill all counselor vacancies in time for the start of the new school year. This phenomenon of insufficient applicants for school counselor vacancies is emerging also as a significant problem at the national level (Klaus, 2003). The current educational recruitment environment is partly attrib- utable to macro-recruitment factors that are largely out of school district control. School districts have little near-term possibility of impacting macro-recruitment factors (e.g., “baby boom” retirements) affecting the prevailing national labor supply of personnel qualified to fill critical posi- tion vacancies. However, school districts do have opportunities to address micro-recruitment factors that fall within school district control. Micro-recruitment factors include the specific recruitment prac- tices and actions implemented by schools and school districts to fill posi- tion vacancies. We believe school districts can mitigate the impact of macro-factors by attending to micro-factors such as improved human resources planning and application of increased resources and expertise to the task of recruiting needed personnel such as school counselors. Rela- tive to the need to re-double micro-recruitment efforts, Young and Castet- ter (2004) stated: 104 Recruiting Teachers Into a Career as School Counselor Because of changing labor market conditions for many individuals as job candidates, school districts must compete both with other organizations and with other school districts for . . . applicants. To compete successfully, school districts must become proficient in attracting and selecting . . . the most capable personnel. (p. 90) Although conducting research about the individuals the organization intends to recruit and hire, especially their job-related needs and prefer- ences, would seem to be an obvious personnel need, the education litera- ture is devoid of such research relating to the specific task of recruiting school counselors. Problem Nationally, school counselors are in short supply, and the educa- tors currently employed as counselors are struggling with large numbers of students to serve while, simultaneously, attempting to deal with increased administrative duties that do not necessarily focus on the coun- seling function (Klaus, 2003; Portman, 2002). The problem is especially acute at the high school level, with little more than half the number of sec- ondary school counselors being available to meet the American School Counselor Association (1999) recommendation of one counselor for every 250 students (Klaus, 2003; Davis & Craig, 1986). Exacerbating the counselor shortage, impacted by the increased rate of retirements among school counselors (Towner-Larsen, 2000), is the concomitant issue of counselors being assigned to perform work tasks (e.g., maintaining school records, administering standardized achievement tests, performing general clerical duties) other than counseling duties (Bemak, 2000; Coll & Freeman, 1997; DeMato & Curcio, 2004; Hardesty & Dillard, 1994; Morse & Russell, 1988; Napierkowski & Parsons, 1995). Having teachers participate in this study was appropriate because of the requirements to become a school counselor in Kentucky. The requirements are as follows (Education Professional Standards Board, 2004): (a) complete a teacher preparation program, (b) receive state- approved teacher certification, (c) gain experience as a classroom teacher, (d) complete a counselor preparation program, and (e) obtain state- approved counselor certification. This lengthy process may contribute to the problem of generating adequate applicant pools for counseling vacan- cies. However, this approach to preparing counselors has a rationale that relates to the issue of school reform. The above certification approach is a statewide policy, mandated by state education statues and regulations (Kentucky Department of Edu- cation, 1996; Education Professional Standards Board, 2004). Schools at the research site, and throughout Kentucky, are undergoing systemic school reform under mandates of the 1990 Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA), one of the most comprehensive school reform programs in the United States. Among the highest priorities of the reform program are enhancing classroom instruction and improving student performance, as measured by standardized student achievement tests (Kentucky Depart- Vol. 36, No. 1&2, 2005, pp. 104–119 105 Winter, Keepers Petrosko, Ricciardi ment of Education, 2004). Given these priorities, state education policy makers desire that counselors be trained in such areas as instructional methods, student assessment, and learning theory. Exceptional emphasis is placed on counselors collaborating with teachers to improve student learning. The above type of training is most readily available in teacher preparation programs and on-the-job training while performing classroom instruction. This instructional orientation contrasts with the mental-health model of counseling operant in Kentucky, and other states, prior to the advent of the current school reform movement (Napierkowski & Parsons, 1995). At the research site, school counselors refer students with serious mental health issues to outside mental health agencies (L. Miller, personal communication, June 17, 2003). Purpose One purpose of this study was to use the recruitment simulation technique (Rynes, 1991; Rynes & Lawler, 1983)—a methodology proven effective for teacher and administrator recruitment in the education sector (e.g., Young, Rinehart, & Heneman, 1993) but used in this research for the first time in the counselor recruitment context—to gauge the attraction of a broad pool of potential job applicants (i.e., teachers) to the job of school counselor. Accomplishing this purpose would assist recruiters in (a) better targeting potential applicants; (b) constructing recruitment media that are effective in attracting teachers to a career in counseling; and, ultimately, (c) generating better applicant pools for position vacancies. A detailed description of the recruitment simulation technique is in the methods sec- tion of this article. Asecond purpose of this study was to identify aspects of the job of counselor that teachers find either attractive or unattractive so that school district policy makers have options for restructuring the job of counselor to make the position more attractive to potential job applicants. Job restructuring holds potential for both improving recruitment outcomes and improving counselor retention. Research Questions The research questions supporting the purposes outlined above were as follows. 1. How many teachers in the district are interested in attending an orientation session to learn more about a career as school counselor? 2. To what degree are teachers interested in performing counselor job duties, both counseling and non-counseling in nature? 3. How does teacher satisfaction with job facets common to both the job of teaching and the job counseling impact the likelihood of teachers transitioning into counseling? 106 Planning and Changing Recruiting Teachers Into a Career as School Counselor 4. What aspects of being a school counselor do teachers per- ceive as being most rewarding? 5. What job factors do teachers perceive as being barriers to becoming a school counselor? 6. What recommendations do teachers have for making the job of school counselor more attractive to teachers? 7. Which factors predict teacher attraction to a position as school counselor as depicted in a simulated counselor job description? Methods The design for this study involved four analytical procedures: (a) descriptive statistics to profile the study participants and gauge their inter- est in attending an orientation session to learn about a career as school counselor; (b) independent samples t-tests and one-way ANOVAs to assess group mean differences in teacher ratings of a counselor position associated with teacher characteristics such as gender and school assign- ment (elementary, middle school, high school); (c) paired-samples t-tests to measure group mean differences for teacher current job satisfaction with job factors (common to both teaching and counseling) compared with teacher expected job satisfaction with those same factors in the job of school counselor; and, finally, (d) stepwise multiple regression analysis (Cohen & Cohen, 1983) to identify predictors of teacher attraction to a job as school counselor. Sample and Participants The participants (N = 553) were elementary, middle school, and high school teachers from the 27th largest school district in the United States (enrollment = 97,000) located in a large metropolitan area in the Midwest. The participants volunteered to take part in the study, and were working at schools selected by the researchers to reflect the diversity of the district in terms of such factors as socio-economic status of the stu- dents, gender and ethnicity of the teachers, and years of teaching experi- ence of the instructional staff. The researchers administered the instruments in person prior to regularly scheduled faculty meetings. The researchers collected data at all school levels: elementary (n = 5), middle school (n = 5), and high school (n = 5). The participating schools differed from the actual distribution of schools (elementary = 66%, middle school = 18%, high school = 16%) to produce a larger sampling of high school teachers because, as reported in the counseling literature (Klaus, 2003), the counseling shortage is most acute at the high school level. The 15 schools represented 10% of the schools in the district. Atotal of 553 teachers volunteered to take part in the study, which was 9.2% of the teachers employed in the district. Poten- Vol. 36, No. 1&2, 2005, pp. 104–119 107 Winter, Keepers Petrosko, Ricciardi tial participants received an invitation to participate in a 15-minute survey session. Attendance at the session and completion of the instrument (as stated explicitly in an advised consent survey preamble) were both volun- tary and confidential. The participation rate was 88%. The minimum sample size required for this study was based on a power analysis conducted according to procedures developed by Cohen (1988). The parameters of the power analysis were: a medium effect size (R2 = .13), a planned alpha level (α =.05), and a minimum level of power (1-β = .80). The minimum sample size determined by the power analysis was 465. The actual sample obtained (N = 553) exceeded this criterion by 19%. Independent Variables For the paired t-test procedure comparing participant group mean scores for current versus expected job satisfaction relative to seven job factors (e.g., hours worked per week), the independent variable was job satisfaction (current, expected) and rating of the job factor was the dependent variable. For the independent-samples t-tests and the one-way ANOVAprocedures, the independent variables were teacher characteris- tics such as gender and school assignment (elementary, middle school, high school). The dependent variable for these procedures was applicant rating of a counselor position (see next section). For the stepwise multiple regression analysis, there were three categories of independent variables: (a) teacher characteristics, (b) com- posite scales for current and expected job satisfaction relating to job fac- tors common to both teaching and counseling, and (c) ratings for five counseling job-specific predictor variables. The composite scales were additive composite scores for current job satisfaction in the position of teaching and expected job satisfaction in the job of counselor. The composite scores for job factors common to both teaching and counseling related to seven job factors (e.g., vacation time, time with family, hours worked per week). Coefficient alpha for the seven-item additive composite score for current job satisfaction was .80 and coefficient alpha for the seven-item additive composite score for expected job satisfaction in the job of school counselor was .90, both highly reliable scales by accepted psychometric standards (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Primary Dependent Variable of Interest The primary dependent variable of interest in this study was applicant rating of a school counselor position as depicted on a simulated counselor job description. The rating was a two-item additive composite score with 5-point Likert-type scales (1 = very unlikely to accept, 5 = very likely to accept). The two items were: (a) “If offered, how likely would you be to accept an interview for the school counselor job described?” and (b) “If offered, how likely would you be to accept the school counselor job described?” 108 Planning and Changing Recruiting Teachers Into a Career as School Counselor Instruments There were three research instruments: a biographical data form, a counselor survey questionnaire, and a simulated counselor job descrip- tion instrument. The counselor survey contained three sections. The first section captured participant ratings for interest in performing counselor job-specific duties (e.g., providing counseling and mentoring to students). Some of these duties were non-counseling tasks but were required of counselors working in the focal district (e.g., performing special educa- tion paperwork). The participants rated their interest in performing job duties on 5-point Likert-type scales (1 = not at all interested, 5 = very interested). The second section of the survey required the participants to (a) rate their satisfaction with job factors related to both teaching and coun- seling in their current teaching positions and (b) rate their expected satis- faction with these same job factors if they were to assume a position as school counselor. The job factors rated included mainly extrinsic factors such as vacation time, time with family, and hours worked per week. The participants rated their current and expected satisfaction using 5-point Likert-type scales (1 = not at all satisfied, 5 = extremely satisfied). The third section of the survey contained three open-ended ques- tions: (a) “Based on what you know about school counseling, what would you identify as being the most rewarding aspects of working as a school counselor?” (b) “In your opinion, what are the greatest barriers preventing teachers from considering a career as a school counselor?” and (c) “What recommendations would you give to make the profession of school coun- seling more attractive to teachers?” The job description instrument contained a simulated job descrip- tion for a counselor position based on actual job descriptions used at the research site. The instructions for the job description instrument required the study participants to assume they were “at a point of time in the future when you have earned counselor certification” and role-play as applicants for a counselor position depicted in the simulated job description. After reading the job description, the participants rated the job using two items (see Primary Dependent Variable of Interest section above). After rating the job, the participants responded to the following question: “If invited, how likely are you to attend a (district name) orientation session for teach- ers to learn about a career in school counseling?” (1 = very unlikely to attend, 5 = very likely to attend). Apanel of experts (N = 6) knowledgeable about school counsel- ing assisted in the process of developing validated content for the survey instrument and the job description instrument. The scales used for the sur- vey rating items derived from previous research that rendered high levels of rating item reliability for research similar to this study (Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992; Gable & Wolf, 1993). Prior to actual data collection, the researchers pilot tested the instruments with a group of teachers (N= 24). The participants completed the survey twice as part of a test-retest procedure to (a) assess the coeffi- Vol. 36, No. 1&2, 2005, pp. 104–119 109 Winter, Keepers Petrosko, Ricciardi cient of stability of the items on the questionnaire and (b) compute coeffi- cient alpha to assess the two-item additive composite scale measuring the primary dependent variable of interest (i.e., rating of a counselor posi- tion). The test-retest analysis resulted in revisions of the questionnaire, with items failing to render an acceptable coefficient of stability being dropped from the instrument. The final survey instrument contained five reliable counselor job-specific items describing the job duties of counsel- ing and seven items measuring satisfaction with job factors common to both teaching and counseling. Results Descriptive statistics for the study participants appear in Table 1. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for the Study Participants (N= 553) Variable n % Mean SD Range Age 40.9 10.8 21–69 Gender Male 171 30.9 Female 382 69.1 Dependent children 1.0 1.3 0–11 Ethnicity White 458 82.8 Minority 95 17.2 Teaching experience 12.9 9.8 1–38 District experience 10.4 9.2 1–38 Highest degree earned BS/BA 106 19.2 MS/MA 276 49.9 Masters + 30 hrs 163 29.5 Doctorate 8 1.4 School enrollment 1,068.5 470.5 420–1,850 School assignment Elementary 162 29.3 Middle School 113 20.4 High School 278 50.3 The mean age of the participating teachers was 40.9. Sixty-nine percent were female and 82.8% were White. These data closely paralleled demo- graphic statistics for the national cadre of teachers (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002). 110 Planning and Changing Recruiting Teachers Into a Career as School Counselor Asummary for the item that queried the participants about their potential interest in attending an orientation session to learn more about a career as school counselor is in Table 2. As can be seen from the data in Table 2, 36.5% of the teachers rated attending an orientation session at 4 or 5 on the 5-point scale (5 being most favorable), suggesting use of an orientation session to recruit teachers into a career as school counselor could be a promising recruitment practice. Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Rating Item About Attending a Counselor Orientation Session (N= 553) If invited, how likely are you to attend a (district name) orientation session for teachers to learn about a career in school counseling? Very Very unlikely to likely to attend attend 1 2 3 4 5 Frequency 179 73 99 93 109 Percent 32.4 13.2 17.9 16.8 19.7 Mean 2.8 (SD) (1.5) Reliability for the two-item additive composite scale used to measure the primary dependent variable of interest (counselor job rating) was .95, a highly reliable composite measure (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). The procedures used to analyze differences in group mean scores, with the two-item composite for counselor job rating serving as the dependent variable, were the independent-samples t-test and one-way analysis of variance. There were no significant group mean differences for factors such as gender (male, female), ethnicity (White, minority), and school assignment (elementary, middle school, high school). These results suggested the above factors are not useful as a basis for targeting teachers for counselor recruitment. The procedure used to analyze differences in group mean scores in comparing current job satisfaction as a teacher with expected job satis- faction in the job of school counselor, relative to job factors common to both positions, was the paired-samples t-test. The results of this analysis are in Table 3. For the following six job factors, the study participants per- ceived they would be more satisfied in the job of teacher than in the job of school counselor: vacation time, time with family, summer income, hours worked per week, experiencing varied activities, opportunity to serve oth- ers, and recognition received for doing a good job. Vol. 36, No. 1&2, 2005, pp. 104–119 111 Winter, Keepers Petrosko, Ricciardi Table 3 Comparing Current and Expected Job Satisfaction, Paired t-Test Results (N= 553) Current Expected Item mean mean t–Value 1. Vacation time 4.3 3.2 19.3* 2. Time w/ family 3.7 3.0 12.0* 3. Summer income 3.4 3.1 3.7* 4. Hours per week 3.4 2.9 9.0* 5. Varied activities 3.7 3.4 4.7* 6. Serve others 4.2 3.9 5.7* 7. Recognition 3.3 3.3 -0.6 * p < .0001 The regression analysis addressed the joint impact of teacher characteristics, job factors common to both teaching and counseling, and counseling job-specific factors. The results of the regression analysis are in Table 4. Table 4 Stepwise Multiple Regression of Predictor Variables on Counselor Job Rating Variable β t-Value Teachercharacteristics District experience -.17 -5.1 ** Common job factorsatisfaction scales Current satisfaction -.09 -2.4 * Expected satisfaction .21 5.3 ** Counseling job-specific factors Special education paperwork .08 2.1 * Administration .20 4.3 ** Testing/Assessment .11 2.3 * Counsel/Mentor .18 4.4 ** * p < .05, **p< .0001. Full Model: R2= .40 [F(7, 545) = 52.2], p< .0001 Adjusted-R2= .39 As the data in Table 4 indicate, one teacher characteristic, both the current 112 Planning and Changing Recruiting Teachers Into a Career as School Counselor and the expected job satisfaction composite scales, and four of the five counseling job-specific factors predicted significant variance in teacher rat- ing of a school counselor position. Holding all other factors in the regres- sion equation constant, the relationships of teaching experience in the district and current job satisfaction with job rating were significant inverse relationships. As experience and current job satisfaction increased, job rat- ings decreased. The other significant predictor variables (i.e., expected job satisfaction, special education paperwork, administration, testing/assess- ment, and counseling/mentoring) had positive relationships with job ratings. As scores on these predictor variables increased, job ratings also increased. The total regression model, as indicated by adjusted-R2, explained 39% of the variance in job ratings, a large effect size according to effect size criteria explicated by Cohen (1988, pp. 412–414). Responses to the open-ended questions rendered findings useful for determining how teachers perceive counseling as a career option. A summary of the open-ended responses is in Table 5. Table 5 Responses to Three Open-Ended Questions Based on what you know about school counseling, what would you identify as being the most rewarding aspects of working as a school counselor? 1. Working with students in a counseling mode (343) 2. Helping students solve problems and become successful (200) 3. Getting to know students in a more personal way (31) 4. Helping at risk students stay in school (24) In your opinion, what are the greatest barriers preventing teachers from considering a careeras a school counselor? 1. Excessive paperwork and time spent on non-counseling duties (274) 2. Extra coursework needed to become certified for the job (113) 3. Low pay (22) What recommendations would you give to make the profession of school counseling more attractive to teachers? 1. Restructure the job to provide more time to spend on counseling duties (191) 2. Reduce excessive paperwork (90) 3. Provide greater administrative support or assign non-counseling duties to other personnel (59) 4. Increase salary (28) 5. Decrease the student counselor ratio (16) Note.Numbers after responses represent frequency of response. Vol. 36, No. 1&2, 2005, pp. 104–119 113