The psychologist’s troubled background: Major related life experiences of psychology and law students Janina Werz & Vanessa L. Buechner This study explores major-related life experiences (MRLE) of psychology and law students to examine the stereotype of the wounded psychology student. Previous studies have shown that psychology students know people with mental disorders and are seeking treatment themselves. However, these studies do not allow drawing conclusions about the direction of these effects or the relationships’ emotional closeness. As a consequence, the present, highly powered (n = 615) study examined whether psychology students and their close social environment experience more MRLE prior to the beginning of their university education than law students and a control group. Results show that especially the very close social environment of psychology students experienced more MRLE than the respective environment of law students, supporting the common assumption that psychologists themselves have a troubled past. This study contributes substantially to a better understanding of students’ personal background and could help improve teaching quality by considering these effects. Keywords: life experiences; stereotypes; psychology students; vocational choice; wounded healer. Theoretical background Only few studies have examined MOST PEOPLE WORKING in the psychology students’ experiences with field of psychology probably came psychological problems. Boor (1975) showed across the widespread stereotype that psychology students are overrepresented that psychologists or their families suffer among students seeking help at a psycholog- more often from psychological problems ical counselling centre. Consistently, Hardy than the average population. There is empir- and Calhoun (1997) showed that psychology ical evidence for the ‘neurotic psychologist’ students are more worried about their mental stereotype in different contexts (Sydow, health and more likely to consult a therapist 1998, 2007; Sydow et al., 1998). Additionally, than other students. In Connor-Greene’s the archetype of the ‘wounded healer’ (see (2001) work conducted on the participants e.g. Groesbeck, 1975) reckons that psycho- of an abnormal psychology class, almost every therapists were confronted with psycholog- student knew at least one person well who ical difficulties in their past. suffered from a psychological disorder. This Previous studies have shown that research indicates that psychology students psychology students are less stable and more have remarkably high major-related life expe- introverted, serious, and prone to anxiety riences (MRLE), that is, experiences that and have more problems handling tension are reflected in the contents of their studies. than other students (Barton & Cattell, 1972; MRLE for psychology students might be diag- Goldschmid, 1967; Yonge & Regan, 1975). noses of psychological disorders or under- Additionally, studies have shown that psycho- going psychotherapy, and will be referred to therapists’ attachment styles are often inse- as psychopathological life experiences (PLE) cure, sometimes even unresolved, suggesting in the following. a difficult family climate (Petrowski et al., Both one’s own and close ones’ expe- 2013; Schauenburg et al., 2010). riences with psychological disorders, 42 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 The psychologist’s troubled background successful or unsuccessful psychotherapy, as psychology students have encountered more well as the contact of role models could MRLE before their studies than students serve as theoretical pathways for the impact with other majors. Further, as it is possible of life experience on the choice of a related that related life experiences occur in every major. Giankonos (1999) for example could major, we aimed to compare psychology show that the knowledge about a profession students with students that study a major and role models in a certain area positively including topics related to possible real-life influence self-efficacy and therefore a stable experiences. We therefore compared MRLE career (Gianakos, 1999). Even if this study of psychology students (i.e. PLE) with MRLE concentrated on careers and not the choice of law students (i.e. LLE – law related life of a major, the transfer of the results to a experiences), such as being the victim of an possible pathway from MRLE to the choice assault. More precisely, we were interested of major seems not to be too far to seek. In whether psychology students have more PLE addition, own experiences with disorders and than students with other majors and whether therapy could also motivate someone to learn they know people with more PLE than more about dealing with own problems – students with other majors. As Studt (2013) as well as to help other people the same showed, the close environment has a strong way, they themselves or their family received influence on adolescents. Therefore, the help. Referring to the stereotype of a trou- latter hypothesis is expected to be especially bled psychologist, these two paths build a true for the emotionally close relationships theoretical framework for the development of psychology students. We also expected of a former patient/relative of a patient to a that this pattern would emerge only for the psychology student. MRLE of psychology students (i.e. PLE) and However, as previous studies did not not for the MRLE of law students (i.e. LLE). control for the point in time when MRLE occurred, they could not draw conclusions Method about the direction of this relationship and Participants and procedure hence not explore those pathways. Addi- Six-hundred fifteen (435 females, mean tionally, they did not asses the emotional age = 23.02 years, SD = 4.57) German closeness of affiliated persons with PLE. As students1 participated in the study. One- previous studies have shown that the level hundred eighty-five were psychology of parental emotional closeness is related to students, one-hundred ninety were law the influence parents have on their adoles- students, and two-hundred forty students cent children (e.g. Coombs et al., 1991; had other majors (control group). Harris et al., 1998; Whitbeck et al., 1993), In the German educational system, the it seems crucial to differentiate the degree 3-year Bachelor provides a general overview of of emotional closeness in further research. a subject and the 2-year Master provides further Moreover, these studies were conducted specialisation (e.g. clinical psychology). A law some time ago and there is no recent degree differs as it is not separated into an research into psychology students’ MRLE. undergraduate and postgraduate degree: As such, the present highly powered study high school absolvents start studying law after aims to fill this gap by exploring whether school and finish their studies after four to 1 Five out of 620 participants were excluded from the analysis. Four participants had voca- tional or student experiences in both majors (psychology and law) and hence could not be allocated to one group only. One student was excluded due to extremely short process time (<10 sec) of the single survey pages with co-occurring extremely high values as this behaviour indicates non-serious processing (see e.g. Abuhalimeh et al., 2011). Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 43 Janina Werz & Vanessa L. Buechner five years later. Hence, the students assessed in answer on a trichotomous scale (‘no’ [0]), this study ranged between their first and fifth ‘yes, once’ [1], ‘yes, several times’ [2]). year of studies thus being a mixed sample of All questions referred to the time prior undergraduate and graduate students, regard- to the beginning of studies to avoid recip- less of their group. rocal linkages between studies and MRLE. They were recruited via a short adver- Subsequently, participants were asked to tisement including a link to an online rate the closeness to the affiliated person questionnaire that was posted in social described on a 3-point Likert scale (‘not network student-groups. As an incentive, two close’, ‘close’, ‘very close’) to control for coupons for €10 for an internet shopping emotional closeness. site were raffled among all participants. Due Legal life experience (LLE). LLE was meas- to organisational necessities, data collection ured analog to PLE, asking for lawsuits was limited to a time window of two weeks. (‘Were you/an affiliated person involved After two weeks, data collection was stopped in a lawsuit once or several times prior to and the achieved sample size was reviewed beginning your studies?’), offences (‘Did for post-hoc-power. As the power was excel- you/an affiliated person commit a crime/ lent, 1 − β = 0.99 (α = 0.05, ηp2 = 0.02), the offence prior to beginning your studies?’), achieved sample size was used. and victimisation (‘Were you/an affiliated All participants gave informed consent person the victim of a crime/offence prior by clicking ‘continue’ after the introduc- to beginning your studies?’). The first ques- tion and information page of the online tions, regarding psychotherapy or a law suit survey. The research reported herein was both implicate a specific involvement with conducted at the Ludwig-Maximilians- the respective profession. We decided not to University-Munich and was approved by ask for receiving legal services, rating those the ethics committee of the Department of more equivalent to psychosocial consulta- Psychology, LMU-Munich, in accordance tion in contrast to the specific and more with the ethical standards expressed in the conservative criterion of psychotherapy. Declaration of Helsinki. Results Measures To test our hypothesis, we examined whether Psychopathological life experience (PLE). PLE own life experience (PLE, LLE) differed was measured by three questions asking between students and ran the same anal- about psychotherapy (‘Did you/an affili- yses for each closeness category of affiliated ated person receive psychotherapeutic or persons, to examine whether the social envi- psychiatric treatment prior to beginning ronment of psychology students plays an your studies?’), psychological disorders important role in the theory of the wounded (‘Were you/an affiliated person diagnosed healer. For each step, we used a 2 × 3 mixed with one or more psychological disorders design ANOVA with life experiences (PLE, prior to beginning your studies?’), and trau- LLE) as within-subject factor and major mata (‘Did you/an affiliated person experi- (psychology, law, control) followed by post- ence one or more traumatic events prior to hoc t tests.2 As there were eight DVs for each your studies?’). Participants were asked to of the three group comparisons (psychology 2 We report the results of ANOVAs and t tests for enhanced understandability. As MRLE was measured using ordinal scales, we also ran non-parametric test, which resulted in the same trends of significance as the results we report in this article. Additionally, to control for a potential overlap between the two types of life experiences, we conducted stepwise ANCOVAs for each of the eight DVs with the correspondent MRLE as a covariate. All trends of significance remained unchanged. 44 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 The psychologist’s troubled background Table 1: Means and standard deviations of all groups. Psychology Law Other Majors Measures M SD M SD M SD Own LLE 0.55 1.04 0.70 1.17 0.42 0.83 PLE 0.74 1.37 0.56 1.03 0.63 1.27 Very close LLE 0.48 1.24 0.47 1.43 0.35 0.99 PLE 1.25 2.49 0.60 1.38 0.66 1.53 Close LLE 0.37 2.34 0.46 1.36 0.15 0.64 PLE 0.83 1.96 0.27 0.97 0.55 1.67 Not close LLE 0.16 0.58 0.27 0.96 0.13 0.53 PLE 0.62 1.73 0.21 0.83 0.40 1.56 Note: LLE = legal life experiences; PLE = psychopathological life experiences. vs. law, psychology vs. others, law vs. others), F(2,612) = 5.35, p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.02, our level of significance was set to p = 0.006 a significant main effect for major, (Bonferroni corrected). Means and standard F(2,612) = 5.51, p = 0.004, ηp2 = 0.02, and deviations are shown below in Table 1. All experiences, F(1,612) = 25.13, p < 0.001, t-test results are summarised in Table 2, we ηp2 = 0.04. only describe data for the significant t tests As expected, post-hoc t tests showed that in the following. ‘very close’ persons of psychology students The ANOVA for own life experi- did have more PLE than those of the ences revealed a significant interaction of control group, t(288.48) = 2.86, p = 0.004, experiences and major, F(2,612) = 3.75, dcohen = 0.29, 95 per cent CI [0.19, 1.01], p = 0.024, ηp2 = 0.01. No main effect for and those of law students t(285.70) = 3.14, major, F(2,612) = 1.24, p > 0.25, nor for p = 0.002, dcohen = 0.32, 95 per cent CI [−1.06, experiences, F(1,612) = 2.30, p = 0.130, was −0.24]. There was no difference between the found. control group and the law students. Post-hoc t tests showed that there was In line with our expectations, post-hoc t no significant difference between psychology tests showed that there were no significant students, law students, and the control group differences between groups for LLE of very regarding own PLE. close persons. Post-hoc t tests showed that law students The ANOVA for the life experiences of did have more LLE than the control group, close persons showed a significant interaction t(326.11) = 2.81, p = 0.005, dcohen = 0.28, 95 of experiences and major, F(2,612) = 5.34, per cent CI [0.09, 0.48], but there were p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.02, and a main effect for no significant differences for the other experiences, F(1,612) = 6.49, p = 0.011, comparisons. ηp2 = 0.01. No main effect for major was The ANOVA for the life experiences found, F(2,612) = 2.89, p = 0.056. of very close persons showed a significant Post-hoc t tests showed that ‘close’ persons interaction of experiences and major, of psychology students did have more PLE Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 45 Janina Werz & Vanessa L. Buechner 95% CI 0.13, 0.69] 0.10, 0.54]− 0.42, 0.04]− 0.28, 0.44]− 0.75, 0.14]− 0.004, 0.30]− e [ [ [ [ [ [ t clos dcohen 0.30 0.13 0.15− 0.14− 0.05 0.19 No p 004* 181 099 153 560 057 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. (df)t 2.92 (262.16) 1.34 (372.92) 1.65 −(379.02) 1.43 −(313.24) 0.58 (423) 1.92 (279.99) 95% CI 0.24, 0.87] 0.08, 0.63]− 0.53, 0.03]−− 0.48, 0.29]− 0.13, 0.57]− 0.10, 0.52] [ [ [ [ [ [ ose dcohen 0.36 0.16 0.20− 0.05− 0.14 0.30 s. Cl p 0.001*< 0.130 0.030 0.627 0.220 0.004* Table 2: T-tests for all group Very close p95% CI (df)dtcohen 0.002*0.32[0.24, 1.06]3.46 (267.65) 0.004*0.29[0.19, 1.01]1.52 (361.15) 0.6820.04[0.34, 0.22]2.18 −−−(395.19) 0.9890.01[0.27, 0.27]0.49 −−(373) 0.2440.12[0.09, 0.35]1.23 −(205.51) 0.2950.10[0.11, 0.37]2.93 −(255.41) xperiences; LLE legal life experiences.= e (df)t 3.14 (285.7) 2.86 (288.48) 0.41 −(428) 0.01 −(373) 1.17 (345.45) 1.05 (322.65) ological life h 95% CI [0.07, 0.42]− [0.14, 0.36]− [0.29, 0.16]− [0.37, 0.76]− [0.05, 0.31]− [0.09, 0.48] E psychopat= Self pdcohen 0.1590.15 0.3870.08 0.5610.06− 0.1840.14− 0.1620.14 0.005*0.28 ni correction); PL (df) t 1.41 (341.1) 0.87 (423) 0.58 −(428) 1.33 −(373) 1.40 (345.65) 2.81 (326.11) 6 (Bonferro Measures comparisons PLE Psych vs. Law Psych vs. Others Law vs. Others LLE Psych vs. Law Psych vs. Others Law vs. Others Note: 0.00*p≦ 46 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 The psychologist’s troubled background than those of law students, t(267.65) = 3.46, To rule out that these results are not p < 0.001, dcohen = 0.36, 95 per cent CI [−0.87, specifically a psychology students’ phenom- −0.24]. There were no significant differences enon but occur in every major, we used for the other comparisons. law exemplarily as a comparison major. We Post-hoc t tests showed that close persons hypothesised that affiliated persons of law of law students did have more LLE than students do not have more LLE than the ones those of the control group, t(255.41) = 2.93, of students with other majors. This was true p = 0.004, dcohen = 0.30, 95 per cent CI [0.10, for the very close persons of law students. 0.52]. There were no significant differences Hence, it is not usual that each student’s very for the other comparisons. close environment had many MRLEs, but it The ANOVA for the life experiences is a special feature of psychology students, of not close persons showed a significant consistent with the stereotype of the neurotic interaction of experiences and major, and wounded psychologist. F(2,612) = 5.42, p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.02, and a The main effect of major on MRLE of very main effect for experiences, F(1,612) = 12.49, close persons shows that very close persons p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.02. No main effect for of psychology students did have more PLE major was found, F(2,612) = 1.83, p = 0.162. and not less LLE than both other groups. Post-hoc t tests showed that the affiliated Additionally, the LLE of close and not close persons rated as ‘not close’ of psychology persons of psychology students did not differ students did have more PLE than those of from the control group. In contrast, all law students, t(262.16) = 2.92, p = 0.004, groups of affiliated persons of law students dcohen = 0.30, 95 per cent CI [−0.69, −0.13]. had the least PLE of the three major groups. There were no significant differences for the This implies that the affiliated persons of other comparisons. psychology students have more difficult expe- Post-hoc t tests showed that there were no riences overall, again supporting the theory significant differences between groups for the of a troubled social background. LLE of affiliated persons rated ‘not close’. The results showed that psychology students did not have significantly more Discussion personal PLE than the law students or the The present study examined whether control group. However, there was a signifi- psychology students and their close relation- cant interaction effect of experiences and ships experienced more PLE than students major for personal MRLE. The means of with other majors as well as their close rela- personal PLE suggest a trend towards the tionships, and whether this pattern is only hypothesised direction, with psychology true for PLE but not for the MRLE of law students rating their PLE higher than both students. To control for baseline levels of law students and the control group. The PLE and LLE, we did look into the differ- failing of this difference to gain significance ences the psychology and law group respec- could (partially) be explained by the fact tively showed to the control group. that psychological disorders and traumatic In line with hypotheses, results show events during childhood and adolescence that all groups of affiliated persons of have a negative impact on school achieve- psychology students had more PLE than ment (Lipschitz et al., 2000; Mrdjenovich & affiliated persons of law students and the Bischof, 2003). This might negatively influ- control group. This indicates that indirect ence the probability to meet the eligibility psychopathological experiences could play criteria for psychology studies which rely an important role for subsequent vocational mostly on high-school diploma results. choice to become a psychologist, which fits In contrast, law students had significantly with the stereotype of the neurotic psycholo- more LLE than the control group. This result gist with a troubled social background. could be biased though, as the exclusion of Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 47 Janina Werz & Vanessa L. Buechner the studies’ influence was not established to examine their influence on vocational equally for the different MRLEs (see below). choice. As the sample was obtained through social Limitations and future research media platforms, the possibility of a selection The present study extends prior research by bias could not be ruled out. A further limita- including the students’ social environment tion is that despite being a mixed sample rated for emotional closeness and the influ- of undergraduate and graduate students, ence it can have on them. A further improve- participants were not asked about their area ment was made by controlling for reciprocal of specialisation. As the definition of PLE linkages by asking the students only to and the pathway from PLE to the becoming a consider experiences that happened prior psychologist described before refer to clinical to their studies. In addition, the questions experiences, they should apply particularly to measuring PLE referred to past professional students interested and specialising in clin- assessments (e.g. diagnoses), reducing self- ical psychology. report biases. However, the studies’ recip- Furthermore, these results implicate rocal influence was not controlled equally for many future research questions, specifically the MRLE of law students. Minor offences, about the impact of MRLE on the quality of such as verbal insults or drug consumption, psychotherapists work. The concept of post- were probably more likely to be noticed as traumatic growth can definitely be seen as an offence and therefore mentioned for law closely related to the aforementioned arche- students than for students with other majors, type of the wounded healer, which would even though nearly every student knows at suggest a positive effect on the therapeutic least someone who reviled somebody or work. Hence, future research could concen- illegally used drugs (for an epidemiological trate on differences in the characteristics of study, see Roth, 2002). In sum, psychology psychotherapists high and low in MRLE and students might have more own MRLE than their respective styles of psychotherapy, types law students, but the present results could be of therapeutic relationships and outcomes of biased by law students’ attained knowledge the treatment. about what an offence or crime actually is. Therefore, future research should establish Implications a more objective assessment of MRLE, e.g. by The present study shows that psychology using expert focus groups to operationalise students often get confronted with mental the MRLE of different majors. health issues in their personal environment. As students were asked for a retrospec- This is in line with Connor-Greene (2001) tive self-report, a causal interpretation of who emphasised that lecturers should teach the influence of MRLE cannot be made. clinical psychology topics with particular The memory of these experiences could be sensitivity and empathy. Furthermore, influenced by MRLE being more salient in a lecturers should bear in mind that espe- student’s mind. However, this effect should cially indirectly affected students often build influence the law students as well as the up their own, individual and unprofessional psychology students, hence not confounding models of psychological disorders which can the results of this comparison in a certain lead to misunderstandings regarding general way. Still, longitudinal studies would enable categorisations. Therefore, it is important to a causal interpretation and explore the focus on scientifically-based general models, development of students’ MRLE and rele- while emphasizing the diversity of individual vant moderating or mediating variables manifestations of disorders. during their high school years and beyond These results do not implicate a general fragility or emotional weakness of psychology 48 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 The psychologist’s troubled background students – if teachers are aware of these We hope that these results contribute to a results, they can use this in a positive way better understanding of psychology students to point out the aforementioned individual and thus to a better quality of education as differences in disorders. Another positive well as inspire further research. side-effect could be a deeper understanding of the practical ‘real-life’ implications of The authors psychological disorders and less stereotypes Janina Werz & Vanessa L. Buechner, Ludwig- about those affected by students with PLE Maximilians-University Munich, Departe- (Corrigan et al., 2014; Kosyluk et al., 2016). ment of Psychology, Leopoldstrasse 13, These implications also affect practical 80802 Munich, Germany training in psychotherapy. Preconditions of students who experienced a trauma or have Correspondence been in therapy differ from those of indi- Janina Werz, Schoen Klinik Roseneck, Am viduals who have never experienced mental Roseneck 6, 83209 Prien am Chiemsee, health issues in terms of their previous Germany knowledge, understanding and needs. Email: [email protected] Psychotherapists should apply special care in leading groups focusing on participants’ own experiences, which are mandatory in Germany during psychotherapy training and aim to increase the awareness of a trainee’s own pathological and non-patho- logical patterns. Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 49 Janina Werz & Vanessa L. 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