1 Geagea et al. / ARTS, SCHOOL SATISFACTION & UNIVERSITY EXPECTATION Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology newcastle.edu.au/ajedp Critical links between arts activity participation, school satisfaction and university expectation for Australian high school students Antoinette Geagea, Judith MacCallum, Lynette Vernon, & Bonnie L. Barber Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology, 2017, Vol. 15, pp. 53-65 Editor for this article: Jennifer Archer, PhD Published by the UON School of Education ISSN 1446-5442 © 2017 The University of Newcastle, Australia This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ AJEDP Original Research Critical links between arts activity participation, school satisfaction and university expectation for Australian high school students Antoinette Geagea1 School of Education, Murdoch University, Australia Judith MacCallum School of Education, Murdoch University, Australia Lynette Vernon School of Psychology, Murdoch University, Australia Bonnie L. Barber School of Applied Psychology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland Griffith University, Australia Abstract Positive school experiences increase school satisfaction and educational aspirations and, are important developmental opportunities for adolescents. Associations between time-varying school-based arts participation, students’ school satisfaction and university expectation were investigated using data collected from 1,215 students in 29 Western Australian high schools. Associations between school-based arts participation and school satisfaction, and school-based arts participation and university expectation were tested using latent growth curve analyses. Positive associations were found between school-based arts participation and time-specific variations in school satisfaction and university expectation in each year of activity participation. Higher levels of school satisfaction and university expectation were reported above and beyond individual-specific underlying developmental trajectory for these outcomes, controlling for socio- economic status. Policy implications and practice are discussed in the context of arts provision for Australian schools. Keywords: aspirations, arts activity, university expectation, school satisfaction 1 Corresponding author Antoinette Geagea PhD Candidate School of Education, Murdoch University, Australia Tel: + 61 (07) 9360 7847 Email: [email protected] Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology (AJEDP) 53 2017, Vol. 15, pp. 53-65 © 2017 The University of Newcastle, Australia 54 AJEDP / Vol. 15 newcastle.edu.au/ajedp Positive school experiences contribute to likelihood (Eccles, Jozefowicz, Barber, & multiple aspects of development during Belansky, 1993; Marjoribanks, 1998) and adolescence, ranging from an increase in want (Schoon, 2006). Eccles et al. (1993) intellectual capital and academic attainment conceptualised ‘likelihood’ as an expectation to psychological wellbeing and peer of going onto college/university based on relationships (Eccles & Roeser, 2011; accumulated self-knowledge and more than Wigfield, Eccles, Schiefele, Roeser, & Davis- just a vague desire. Educational aspirations Kean, 2007). However, not all students have and expectations have been found to have positive experiences at school nor do they distinguishable differences (Gottfredson, feel satisfied with their school life. In a recent 1981; Beal & Crockett, 2010). However, Beal survey of Australian students’ school life, and Crockett’s work found that both of these approximately 21% of high school students constructs similarly predicted education were found to lack interest in school and attainment eight years later. This study uses were unhappy with school (Hancock & ‘expectation’ of going on to higher education Zubrick, 2015). Australian parents and because this construct is a suitable measure policymakers are concerned about the of educational aspiration and includes potential negative effects that this assessment of the realistic chances of disaffection may have on young people attainment rather than aspirations grown in achieving optimal academic and ideal conditions. developmental outcomes. School satisfaction Aspiration and expectation School satisfaction is an important aspect of Thriving at school and developing adolescents’’ quality of life. Given the educational aspirations that lead to a centrality of school in adolescent life, school successful future are important satisfaction has the potential to influence developmental tasks for adolescents. Early present and future trajectories (Baker, Dilly, aspirations are conceived as optimistic and Aupperlee, & Patil, 2003). One important vague representations of a future possibility aspect of young people’s development is (Nurmi, 2004), which are then strengthened their socio-emotional needs at school and and refined with age through cognitive whether these are met. In the broad field of processes of developing goals and decision- educational psychology, school satisfaction making. Ecological systems theory is situated in a cluster of constructs that (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) suggests include engagement (Appleton, Christenson, that developmental goals are influenced by Kim, & Reschly, 2006), belonging interactions and experiences gained within (Goodenow, 1992), liking (Hawkins, Guo, contexts where young people are socialised. Hill, Battin-Pearson, & Abbott, 2001) and Positive interactions with parents, teachers attachment (Mouton, 1996). As young and like-minded peers are likely to influence people move through their schooling, aspirations (Rumberger, 1993; Tucker, positive school experiences such as Barber, & Eccles, 2001) and their achievement, competence and relatedness evaluations about the likelihood of achieving (Wigfield et al., 2015) are likely to increase those hoped-for goals. The stronger the their interest, enjoyment and engagement at perceived likelihood of realising those school and contribute to increased school aspirations, while taking into account current satisfaction and, more widely, a positive interests, abilities, success and failure, and sense of wellbeing. The current literature has available opportunities (Gottfredson, 1981), paid little attention to how school-based arts the greater likelihood that behaviours will be activities may affect students’ school adapted to maintain their desired trajectory experiences and how these experiences (Markus & Nurius, 1986; Nurmi, 2004). may be fostered to positively influence student outcomes (Elmore & Huebner, Various nomenclatures have been used to 2010). describe young people’s higher education aspirations. These include plans (Catterall, 2012); intention (Martin et al., 2013); 55 Geagea et al. / ARTS, SCHOOL SATISFACTION & UNIVERSITY EXPECTATION School-based arts participation Assoulin, 2014; Park, Holloway, Arendtsz, Bempechat, & Li, 2012). Arts activity Research has linked extracurricular activity participation allows students who value art to participation with positive self-concept and gain skills and competencies in a personally self-worth (Blomfield & Barber, 2009), self- meaningful domain. Through arts esteem (Kort-Butler & Hagewen, 2011; engagement, students have opportunities to Martin et al., 2013), promoting prosocial carve out an activity–based persona (an behaviours (Poulin & Denault, 2013) and artist, a dancer) and perhaps as a result, to lower rates of risky behaviours (McCabe, find a place in the social structure of the Modecki, & Barber, 2016). School-based school where they feel they belong (McNeal, extracurricular activity participation has been 1999; Barber, Eccles, & Stone, 2001). This found to be more strongly associated with process can help to develop a positive academic engagement and achievement identity with a connection to school, even than out-of-school activities (Gerber, 1996). where success in traditional academic Context–specific activities that are aligned to subjects has been elusive. Illustratively, the individual’s future aspirations are likely to Fiske (1999) reported that arts activity in impact on goals and outcomes in that same schools provided powerful benefits context (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). particularly for engaging difficult students. In much of the previous research, the impact Arts participation is one of the most common of participation is considered at only one forms of school-based extracurricular point in time, or as a uniform “all or nothing” activities undertaken by Australian measure (Rose-Krasnor, Busseri, adolescents (Ewing, 2011; Martin et al., Willoughby, & Chalmers, 2006, p. 386), 2013). Generally, these activities are self- rather than considering arts participation selected from a range of offerings that patterns over time. However, school-based include dance, performing arts, band, choir, arts activity participation is not constant playing a musical instrument, digital music, across a high school career and can vary and film within the high school setting. Such across the years for different reasons: arts-based activities offer a number of activity experimentation, friendship shifts, or developmentally facilitative experiences fluctuating school resources (Ewing, 2011; (Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003), Stearns & Glennie, 2010) are some promoting positive social, academic and examples. We sought to account for this behavioural outcomes for adolescents variation in the study. (Deasy, 2002; Fiske, 1999). Active engagement in arts activities at school has The current study been shown to facilitate positive school experiences, for example through particpants’ perceptions of more positive The aims of the current study were to support from other students and a more examine the associations between school- positive identification with the school based arts activity participation and levels of (Martinez et al., 2016). Such positive school satisfaction and university experiences, accumulated over multiple expectation for students in high school. years of participation, help to enhance Analyses allowed for students’ movement in students’ perceptions of school life, develop and out of arts activities across the high a better attitude to school and improve school years and investigated cross- wellbeing (Darling, Caldwell & Smith, 2005). sectional time-varying associations. Firstly, we hypothesised that school-based arts The stage-environment fit theory (Eccles & participants would report contemporaneously Midgley, 1989) posits that when students are higher levels of school satisfaction, above participating in school-based activities that and beyond students’ individual school coincide with their personal interests and satisfaction trajectories from year 8 through talents, there is increased motivation to to year 11. Secondly, we hypothesised that achieve academically, and a higher level of school-based arts activity participants would school enjoyment (Orkibi, Ronen, & report contemporaneously higher university expectation, above and beyond what was 56 AJEDP / Vol. 15 newcastle.edu.au/ajedp expected based on the individual-specific School satisfaction. This scale was based underlying developmental trajectory for on the mean of three items designed to university expectation. determine students’ perceived satisfaction with school. The school satisfaction items Method were not included in the 2011 YAPS survey, therefore, the time lag between each wave of data was not equivalent and analyses Participants adjusted for this gap (Byrne, 2012). Three statements were rated – “school is The sample comprised 1,215 students (58% interesting”; “I enjoy school activities”; and “I female) from 29 high schools (68% look forward to going to school” on a 5-point metropolitan, 32% regional) who responded scale ranging from 1 = not at all true for me to the Youth Activity Participation Survey of to 5 = very true for me. The items were Western Australia (YAPS-WA). The baseline adapted from the Multidimensional Students’ mean age was 13.47 years (SD = .31). Of Life Satisfaction Scale (MSLSS) (Huebner, these participants, 56.1% were Caucasian, 1994). Reliability for the scale at each time 7.0% were Asian, 2.0% were Aboriginal or point was high (.85 < α < .89). Torres Strait Islanders, 3.4% were Middle Eastern/African, 18.0% were other (e.g., University expectation. Student university Indian, and Maori) and 12.7% didn’t report expectation was measured using one item ethnicity. “how likely are you to go to university after high school?” The item was measured using Procedures a 7-point scale where 1 = Not at all likely to 7 = Very likely. This item was adapted for use Survey data were collected from 2010 to from the Michigan Study of Adolescent Life 2013 as part of the larger YAPS-WA study Transitions (Eccles & Barber, 1999). investigating students’ extracurricular activities. Responses were captured using Covariates. SES was included in the study laptops, iPads or pen and paper if requested as a time-invariant covariate (0 = below by the school. The survey was approved by median, 1 = above median). SES was the Murdoch University Human Research measured at school level using the school’s Ethics Committee, the Department of Index of Community Socio-Educational Education (WA) and the WA Catholic Advantage (Australian Curriculum Education Office and took around 45 Assessment and Reporting Authority minutes to complete. Survey participation (ACARA), 2015). This index describes a required active informed student and parent school’s comparative socioeconomic consent. advantage using data on parental education, occupation, income, ethnicity, and Measures geographical location of students (author citation removed for anonymous review). School-based arts activity participation. The ICSEA index has a mean of 1000, and Students were asked to report all their art standard deviation of 100 and participating activity participation at school including schools ranged between two standard performing arts (dance, drama, singing), deviations above and below the mean visual, digital and creative arts, musical (author citation removed for anonymous instrument playing, choir and band. These review). activities included individual pursuits and group-based activities. Two groups were Analysis plan identified—those participating in any school- based arts activities during each school year Latent growth curve models (LGCMs) were and those with no school-based arts used to characterise change in school participation that year (0 = No school-based satisfaction and university expectation over arts participation, 1 = Yes, school-based arts four years of high school. All analyses were participation). conducted using Mplus 7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 2015). Model fits were evaluated 57 Geagea et al. / ARTS, SCHOOL SATISFACTION & UNIVERSITY EXPECTATION using maximum likelihood estimation with expectation. Specifically, this final model robust standard errors (Yuan & Bentler, examined the extent to which school-based 2000). The analyses used Bias-corrected arts participation accounted for within-time (BC) bootstrapped confidence intervals (concurrent) relations with school satisfaction (5000 iterations) to generate estimates for (or university expectation). We estimated a the model, with 95% confidence intervals LGCM in which participation in school-based (CI) to estimate significance and strength of arts activities in Year 8, 10, and 11 served as the associations in each model. These predictors of individual variability in students’ approaches adjust for non-normality in the school satisfaction in Year 8, 10, and 11 (for data and can be used to estimate missing university expectation in Year 8, 9, 10, and data based on case information within the 11). These two models evaluated whether dataset (Yuan & Bentler, 2000). All models school-based arts participation was cross- were assessed and found to have sectionally associated with school acceptable fit using the chi-square satisfaction (or university expectation) above goodness-of-fit test, the comparative fit index and beyond what was expected based on (CFI), and the root mean square error of the individual-specific underlying trajectory of approximation (RMSEA). For a good fitting school satisfaction (or university model, the CFI has a value greater than .95 expectation). and for the RMSEA values between .05 and .08 represent acceptable fit (McDonald & Ho, Results 2002). Descriptive data (correlations, means, Firstly, we estimated unconditional LGCMs standard deviations) for the latent variables separately for school satisfaction and of school satisfaction and university university expectation. School satisfaction expectation at each time point and SES are scores were taken with an initial time point in presented in Table 1. 2010, then in 2012 and finally in 2013, fixing the required time points at 0 for baseline, Unconditional univariate latent growth then at 2 for the second measurement two curve models years after baseline, and then at 3 for three years after baseline. The slope factor, School satisfaction. The unconditional therefore, represented the overall shape of linear latent growth curve model for school the school satisfaction trajectory using three satisfaction in the total sample fit the data measurements over four years. For well: χ2 (1, N = 1187) = 5.74, p = .25, CFI = university expectation, the scores were taken 0.99, RMSEA = .063. The LGCM had a in consecutive years from 2010 to 2013. The significant negative slope (standardised slope factor, therefore, represented the slope: Ms = -.06, p < .05), indicating a overall shape of the university expectation decline in school satisfaction levels for trajectory for four years. As the model for students from year 8 to year 11. The university expectation could be identified variances for the intercept and slope were Di with four time points, we tested for quadratic = .70, p < .05, and Ds = .06, p < .05, growth as well as linear growth. The respectively, indicating substantial variation covariance between the intercept and slope across the students in initial school was estimated separately for each outcome satisfaction levels and their trajectories. The measure. correlation between the intercept and slope (Ris) was -.09 (p < .05), which suggested Next, we estimated two separate models students with higher initial levels of school whereby school-based arts participation was satisfaction experienced greater decline over used as a time-varying predictor of growth in time. school satisfaction and growth in university expectation, testing contemporaneous University expectation. The unconditional associations. SES was included in each linear LGCM for university expectation in the model as a time-invariant predictor of the total sample fit the data well: χ2 (5, N = 1209) intercept and slope of school satisfaction, = 28.83, p = .00, CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = .063. and intercept and slope of university 58 AJEDP / Vol. 15 newcastle.edu.au/ajedp The LGCM had a significant negative mean correlation between the intercept and slope slope (Ms = -.09, p < .05), indicating a (Ris) was not significant. The quadratic decline in university expectation levels for model specification was problematic (i.e. students from year 8 to year 11. The negative residual variances) for the four variance for the intercept and slope were Di university expectation scores, and therefore, = 2.30, p < .05, and Ds = .20, p < .05, quadratic growth was not considered further. respectively, indicating substantial variation The linear growth model was considered an across the students in initial university acceptable fit for the trajectory of university expectation levels and trajectories. The expectation and used in the final model. Does school arts participation predict satisfaction in year 8 (β = 0.13; p < .05), year time-specific elevations in school 10 (β = 0.19; p < .05) and year 11 (β = 0.15; p < .05). These results suggest that school satisfaction trajectories? arts participation added to the prediction of school satisfaction beyond what would be Concurrent associations for school expected based on their individual satisfaction. The full LGCM of school trajectories alone, controlling for SES. The satisfaction, with time-invariant (i.e., SES) R2 values for school satisfaction are all and time-varying (concurrent school arts greater than .61, indicating that the variation participation from year 8 to year 11) in levels of students’ school satisfaction is covariates fit the data well, χ2 (8, n =1215) = well explained by the intercept and slope and 21.13, p =.007, CFI=0.98, RMSEA = .037. school-based arts participation as the time- Results are shown in Figure 1. Students who varying covariate, after controlling for SES. participated in school arts reported significantly higher levels of school This space is intentionally blank 59 Geagea et al. / ARTS, SCHOOL SATISFACTION & UNIVERSITY EXPECTATION Figure 1 Full LGCM showing concurrent associations with time-varying arts participation and time-invariant covariate (SES) with standardized parameter estimates. School Arts participation predicted schools satisfaction above and beyond the growth in school satisfaction that is accounted for by school satisfaction trajectory. Significant parameters are denoted with asterisks and bold lines and the 95% confidence interval for each parameter is provided in parentheses. Residual variances for school satisfaction variables are included. *p <.05; **p <.01; ***p <.001. .29 .39 .31 School School School Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction Yr 8 Yr 10 Yr 11 1 School satisfaction 1 intercept 1 .16***(.08,.23) -.43***(-.58,.14) SES 0 .06*(.01,.11) .09***(.04,.14) .07*(.01,.12) 2 -.07(-.17,.04) 3 School-based School-based School-based School Arts Arts Arts satisfaction Participation Participation Participation slope Yr 8 Yr 10 Yr 11 Does school arts participation predict expectation in year 8 (β = .16; p < .05), year time-specific elevations in university 9 (β = .29; p < .05) year 10 (β = .31; p < .05) expectation trajectories? and year 11 (β = .24; p < .05). These results suggest that school arts participation Concurrent associations for university contributed to higher university expectation expectation. The full LGCM of university than would be expected based on individual expectation, with time-invariant (i.e., SES) trajectories alone, after controlling for SES. and time-varying (concurrent school arts The R2 values for university expectation were participation from year 8 to year 11) all greater than .72, indicating that the covariates fit the data well, χ2 (19, n =1215) variation in observed outcome measures for = 86.52, p =.000, CFI=0.98, RMSEA = .054. university expectation was well explained by Results are shown in Figure 2. Students who school-based arts participation as the time- participated in school arts reported varying covariate, together with controlling significantly higher levels of university for SES. This space is intentionally blank 60 AJEDP / Vol. 15 newcastle.edu.au/ajedp Figure 2 Full LGCM showing the concurrent associations with time-varying arts participation and time- invariant covariate SES with standardized parameter estimates. School Arts participation predicted university expectation above and beyond the growth in university expectation that is accounted for by the growth trajectory. Significant parameters are denoted with asterisks and bold lines and the 95% confidence interval for each parameter are provided in parentheses. Residual variances for university expectation are included. *p <.05; **p <.01; ***p <.001. .28 .24 .25 .16 University University University University Expectation Expectation Expectation Expectation Yr 8 Yr 9 Yr 10 Yr 11 11 University 1 1 Expectation 1 intercept 1 .32***(.26,.38) -.02(-.16,.17) SES 0 .04*(.00,.09) .08***(.04,.11) .07***(.04,.11) .05***(.01,.09) 1 .12*(.02,.22) 2 School-based School-based School-based School-based University 3 Arts Arts Arts Arts Expectation Participation Participation Participation Participation slope Yr 8 Yr 9 Yr 10 Yr 11 Discussion began to seek autonomy from parents and teachers to decide their own educational and Little prior research has tested the relations career future. We also found that university between arts participation, school expectation declined with age, as students satisfaction and educational aspiration. This moved through high school. It is likely that study sought to contribute to filling that gap older students had re-evaluated their post- by testing the hypothesis that students who high school educational goals as they moved participated in school-based arts would through school, and the realisation of report higher levels of school satisfaction at previously laid plans came to be viewed as each time point in high school; this less likely, particularly in low SES schools hypothesis was supported. Support was also (Fleming & Grace, 2014). found for the second hypothesis that students who participated in arts activities This study examined and found positive would contemporaneously report higher associations between school-based arts expectation for going to university. participation and school satisfaction, supporting Marsh & Kleitman’s (2002) The findings revealed that, on average, research that linked school-based activities school satisfaction declined with age as directly with school-related outcomes. students moved through high school which is School-based arts participation involves consistent with previous research (Elmore & context-specific processes that link directly Huebner, 2010; Tomyn & Cummins, 2011). to students’ developmental and educational This decline coincides with expected outcomes (Gerber, 1996). One explanation developmental changes as young people is that linking students with positive mentors 61 Geagea et al. / ARTS, SCHOOL SATISFACTION & UNIVERSITY EXPECTATION and role models in arts activities provides a with them) as young people move through supportive environment that transfers into high school and develop their personal and the broader school environment (Ewing, educational aspirations. 2002). Further, school-based arts activities often allow for self-definition and explicit Our results should be interpreted with expression of an outward message to the caution as causality could not be determined outside world that “this is who I am” and in our design; that is, it is possible that declaratively “I am creative” that is congruent students with more optimistic attitudes about with the participant’s personal identity school and higher aspirations are more likely (Barber, Abbott, Neira, & Eccles, 2014; to participate in arts activities or that those Hansen et al., 2003). When this personal participating in arts were more attuned and expressiveness is supported, it is likely to confident in developing aspirations and result in more goal- directed behaviours that expectations for higher education. The achieve developmental and academic results indicated higher levels of both school outcomes (Coatsworth et al., 2005) satisfaction and university expectation for particularly for students who find schoolwork arts participants above and beyond expected challenging. Additionally, arts participation individual trajectories and this effect held may offer an anchor to which academically across multiple data points. We controlled for challenged or disengaged students can SES so that some of the between-group attach during high school, providing a buffer differences were accounted for (Holland & against declines in both school satisfaction Andre, 1987) which may attenuate some of and educational aspirations. It is also the selection biases concern in this study; possible that positive experiences gained in however, caution is still warranted. arts may have helped participants to develop more positive attitudes towards school and Conclusion afforded them opportunities to see school as a more satisfying place to be, more This study contributes to the literature by enjoyable and more interesting than the way identifying school-based arts participation as school is viewed by those who do not a potential factor in enhancing school participate in arts. satisfaction and increasing university expectation. Arts activities may be used as a University expectation was also positively design feature in future school-based associated with school-based arts activity interventions for students who are participation. This finding suggests that arts dissatisfied with school and considering participation in the high school years dropping out. These activities and the provides students with more positive school positive experiences gained during experiences, increasing their enjoyment and participation may help to remediate negative interest in school and facilitating access to experiences and contribute to enhancing positive mentors and role models that school satisfaction, and potentially, post-high assisted students to more confidently and school educational aspiration. Further optimistically plan for a future that includes research to investigate processes such as post-high school education. Studies mentoring and the dynamics of arts investigating arts participation in the school participation that lead to positive school domain specifically are scarce; however, our attitudes, could contribute to better findings that university expectations were understanding of how personal factors and linked with students’ school-based arts social interactions affect students’ school life. activity participation across the high school Our investigation into the role of arts activity period are consistent with previous research participation in school satisfaction and (Kaufman & Gabler, 2004). It is likely that university aspirations adds to the literature students benefit significantly from the on the benefits of school-based arts cognitive enrichment experienced during participation for students at high school. We training and practice in arts, and also believe that this research is timely in through accessing supportive adults in these highlighting the importance of school-based activities who provide knowledge, skills and arts activities as arts programs are often social capital (talking, learning and working reduced when resources are scarce (Stearns