Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching Department of English Studies, Faculty of Pedagogy and Fine Arts, Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz SSLLT 7 (2). 2017. 275-293 doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.2.6 http://www.ssllt.amu.edu.pl Application of LSP texts in translator training Larisa Ilynska Riga Technical University, Latvia [email protected] Tatjana Smirnova Riga Technical University, Latvia [email protected] Marina Platonova Riga Technical University, Latvia [email protected] Abstract The paper presents discussion of the results of extensive empirical research into efficient methods of educating and training translators of LSP (language for spe- cial purposes) texts. The methodology is based on using popular LSP texts in the respective fields as one of the main media for translator training. The aim of the paper is to investigate the efficiency of this methodology in developing the- matic, linguistic and cultural competences of the students, following Bloom’s revised taxonomy and European Master in Translation Network (EMT) translator training competences. The methodology has been tested on the students of a professional Master study programme called Technical Translation imple- mented by the Institute of Applied Linguistics, Riga Technical University, Latvia. The group of students included representatives of different nationalities, trans- lating from English into Latvian, Russian and French. Analysis of popular LSP texts provides an opportunity to structure student background knowledge and expand it to account for linguistic innovation. Application of popular LSP texts instead of purely technical or scientific texts characterised by neutral style and rigid genre conventions provides an opportunity for student translators to de- velop advanced text processing and decoding skills, to develop awareness of 275 Larisa Ilynska, Tatjana Smirnova, Marina Platonova expressive resources of the source and target languages and to develop under- standing of socio-pragmatic language use. Keywords: translator training; language for specific purposes (LSP); allusion; Bloom’s revised taxonomy 1. Introduction The paper presents a discussion of the results of extensive empirical research into efficient methods of educating and training translators of special texts in the field of business and finance, telecommunications and computers, and civil engineer- ing and architecture. The methodology is based on using popular scientific LSP texts in the respective fields as one of the main media for translator training. The aim of the paper is to investigate the efficiency of this methodology in developing linguistic and thematic competences of the students. The methodology has been tested on the students of professional Master study programme calledTechnical Translation implemented by the Institute of Applied Linguistics, Riga Technical University, Latvia. The program is a member of the European Master in Translation Network (EMT). The group of students included representatives of different na- tionalities, translating from English into Latvian, Russian, and French. 2. Application of language-for-specific-purposes (LSP) texts in translator training The Master students already possess an advanced level of linguistic compe- tence. Many of them have a comprehensive level of thematic competence, which allows making use of more complicated tasks in the student-centered learning process and setting more ambitious targets. However, there are certain aspects of the language use that remain a challenge even for an advanced speaker. Such manifestations of the intertextuality as allusion, allegory, idiom, proverb and quote may become “culture bumps” (Leppihalme, 1997, p. 4) in the process of decoding the source text. They may become a challenge when their meaning has to be re-encoded in the process of translation. Overcoming these challenges, students both promote their foreign language competence and in- crease their awareness of the source culture. Expanding traditional pedagogical applications in second language acquisition, we employ focused textual analysis of popular scientific LSP texts, which helps students develop sound background knowledge in the subject field and master figurative language use. Traditional methods of LSP translator training include development of ad- vanced foreign language reading and writing skills, knowledge of terminological 276 Application of LSP texts in translator training resources available in the working languages, and promotion of background knowledge in the field of specialization. However, taking into consideration that contemporary scientific and technical texts increasingly display features of genre hybridity, it is useful to expand the range of genres LSP translators will be able to deal with. The present authors propose to use reading, analysis and translation of popular LSP texts in the field of specialization in addition to other traditional methods of LSP translator training as this methodology offers a num- ber of advantages. First, reading popular scientific texts on economics, business, architecture, and so on, student translators get acquainted with new scientific and technical concepts in a comprehensible and entertaining way, developing both thematic and terminological competences. They also learn professional jar- gon that may eventually become part of the professional lexis. Second, as pop- ular LSP texts are characterized by application of expressive resources of the language such as metaphors, allusions, puns, idioms, and lexical innovations used to promote interest, students develop their perception of figurative lan- guage use, which they would hardly encounter if they translated purely tech- nical or scientific texts. Third, students raise their cultural awareness and socio- pragmatic competence by decoding allusions, which appear on the interface of linguistic and cultural knowledge (Lennon, 2004, p. 31), and by analyzing the references to the events which are topical in the source community. It is im- portant to stress that instructors have to explain to the students the difference between approaches to translation of popular LSP and traditional scientific and technical texts, that is, to ensure that students are aware of the differences be- tween genres and conventions of text production. Thus, in designing a curriculum of translation practice modules, the learn- ing outcomes should be formulated to account for a higher level of foreign lan- guage knowledge, and at the same time to precisely formulate the components of advanced competences that students should develop. The methods that are traditionally used in translator training include development of core compe- tences: linguistic competence in the working languages placing particular em- phasis on the student’s native language, thematic competence in the fields of specialization addressing both the conceptual framework of a particular disci- pline and terminological resources, and socio-pragmatic competence making translators effective communicators between languages and cultures. Developing a translator profile within the technical translation study pro- gramme, the components of translator competence set by the EMT are used as the basic framework of reference (European Commission. . ., 2009). The core components addressed within the framework are translation service provision competence (interpersonal and production dimensions), language competence, 277 Larisa Ilynska, Tatjana Smirnova, Marina Platonova intercultural competence (sociolinguistic and textual dimensions), as well as technological, thematic and information mining competences. 3. Core competences of an LSP translator Translator training and relevant curriculum design have recently become one of the main areas of interest of translation scholars. Campbell and Halle (2003) stress, “much . . . work is concerned with identifying the components of compe- tence and proposing curriculum models that incorporate these components and suitable teaching strategies” (p. 205). Bloom’s revised taxonomy is a tool that can be efficiently used in identify- ing the elements of competences and skills in curriculum design to redefine ac- ademic excellence. It can be adapted to any field of study and help formulate relevant and measureable learning outcomes. The revised taxonomy consists of two dimensions, namely, knowledge and cognitive processes; each dimension is organized into subcategories (cf. Munzenmaier & Rubin, 2013, pp. 18-19). The translator competences set out in the EMT manual can be related to four cate- gories of knowledge dimension “arranged from the most concrete to the most abstract” (European Commission. . ., p. 18), namely, factual, conceptual, proce- dural and metacognitive knowledge. Factual knowledge is closely related to the thematic competence of a trans- lator. It is the knowledge about facts and specific details within a certain field that are essential to decode the message. It also includes the mastery of terminology in the given field and other related fields. Taking into consideration that technol- ogy and science are becoming increasingly interdisciplinary, it is important to make students aware of common and distinguishing features of a subject field. Jones (1985) argues that in the context of language for special purposes (e.g., in economics, telecommunication, civil engineering and architecture, etc.), domain specifications are well-defined, which still does not guarantee the basis for wide- ranging and powerful predictions of language behavior in new situations. Conceptual knowledge is also closely connected with the thematic com- petence of a translator. According to Munzenmaier and Rubin (2013, p. 18), it is the knowledge of “classifications, principles, generalizations, theories, models, or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area.” A translator should be familiar with the conceptual structure of the field of specialization in both work- ing languages. Moreover, understanding of inherent interdisciplinarity of any subject field is necessary for the formation of new conceptual knowledge, as interdisciplinarity incorporates a variety of models from other fields. The estab- lishment of a network of relevant background knowledge is the key aspect of cross-curricular learning. 278 Application of LSP texts in translator training Developing procedural knowledge, a translator at the same time advances one’s translation service provision competence, its production dimension in particu- lar. In Bloom’s taxonomy, procedural knowledge “refers to methods of inquiry, very specific skills, algorithms, techniques, and particular methodologies” (Munzenmaier & Rubin, 2013, p. 19). For example, a translator should master translation strategies, identify translation problems, and select appropriate methods for their solution. Metacognitive knowledge is the awareness an individual should have of one’s personal growth and life-long learning needs. Developing a spirit of curi- osity, ability to analyse and summarise are mentioned as some of the aspects of the thematic competence of a translator and are closely connected with the knowledge management function. In designing the curriculum that would account for the changing require- ments set forth to the professional profile of an LSP translator, it is important to address the core competences and skills which a student translator can develop only with appropriate tutoring. The competence that is most difficult to develop without guidance is intercultural competence and its elements, the sociolinguis- tic and textual dimensions. According to EMT manual (European Commission. . ., p. 6), the dual per- spective should be taken into consideration in developing this competence, com- paring and contrasting discursive practices in the working languages. The socio- linguistic dimension covers awareness of social, dialectal, and stylistic variations of the languages, as well as the ability to discriminate between the registers and select the one appropriate for a given communicative situation. The textual dimension of intercultural competence may potentially pose the greatest challenge not only for student translators but also for experienced professionals, because it is inherently connected with the ability to decode, un- cover and reproduce implicit meaning. If a translator fails to pick up contextual clues, decode the meaning communicated by such intertextual references as al- lusions, or make the references to the sources culture specific knowledge un- derstandable to the target audience, the process of communication across the cultures may be seriously impeded. It is stipulated in the manual that a transla- tor should be able to understand and analyse the macrostructure of a docu- ment, including the information communicated by graphic expressive means; to summarize and extract the most relevant information from the source text; to identify, contrast and reproduce to the degree possible elements, values and references of the cultures represented; as well as to compose the document in accordance with the conventions of the genre and rhetorical standards. A Master student in translation is expected to possess an advanced level of foreign language knowledge. However, considering the growing complexity of the contemporary language and the growing rate of linguistic innovation and 279 Larisa Ilynska, Tatjana Smirnova, Marina Platonova language change, language skills of a translator should be developed on a life- long basis. Translation is an exercise in languages, and every act of translating promotes the knowledge of the working languages. By decoding the meaning of the source text, recreating its rhetorical function and stylistic coloring, students use languages to advance their linguistic competence. Translation as a means in second language acquisition has been discussed since the times of ancient Greece. At present, this issue has not lost its prominence. Translation as a tool in second language learning is considered from numerous per- spectives (see Krawutschke, 2008; Leonardi, 2010; Witte, Harden, & Ramos de Ol- iviera Harden, 2009). Talking about the role of translation in language instruction, France (2005, p. 256) maintains that “it should be noted that among the exercises of the rhetoric classes, translation always had an important place and is still re- garded as one of essential ways of acquiring the mastery of a foreign language.” Steiner (1998, p. 490) adds to the point: “Inside or between languages human com- munication equals translation. A study of translation is a study of language.” Another competence that should be specifically addressed in curriculum design is thematic competence, which implies not only the knowledge of the conceptual framework and terminology of particular fields, but also develop- ment of the spirit of curiosity, analysis and summary. 4. Intertextuality in LSP texts In the case of LSP translation, it is not always easy to draw a line between some elements of textual and thematic competence because the ability to decode ref- erences to the previous texts is a core element of both competences. The mas- tering of “systems of concepts, methods of reasoning, presentation, controlled language, and terminology” (European Commission. . ., p. 7) (thematic compe- tence) is inherently connected with the ability “to grasp the presuppositions, implicit information, allusions, stereotypes and intertextual nature of a source text” (p. 6) (textual competence). Thus, it may be maintained that a translator should have a thorough understanding of the intertextual nature of any text tak- ing into consideration the specific character of LSP texts that are produced and decoded in special thematic fields. The transmission and comprehension of in- formation within professional communication is based on the knowledge of not only one special subject field but also of the entire body of world knowledge for production, reception, and interpretation of LSP texts. In the process of translation, the degree of intertextuality of a text in- creases because the translated text belongs to networks of both the source and target language texts, and it may contain the references to both source and tar- get culture and require activating various levels of background knowledge. 280 Application of LSP texts in translator training Within his intertextual theory, Barthes (as cited in Allen, 2011) stresses the role of the reader in the interpretation of the text. The reader is seen as a co-creator or even a single creator of the meaning of a text. He distinguishes two types of readers: passive “consumers,” who read the work for stable meaning encoded by the author, and “writers of the text,” who are essentially co-authors of the text, and are involved in the analysis and production of the text. Allen (2011, p. 74) supports and expands this view maintaining that “the modern scriptor, when s/he writes, is always already in a process of reading and re-writing. Meaning comes not from the author but from language viewed intertextually.” From the pedagogical perspective, it is necessary to train student transla- tors to identify intertextual references, to select an appropriate strategy for transferring them into the target language, and applying the most efficient com- pensation mechanism to account for inevitable meaning loss in the process of translation. It is particularly challenging in a multilingual classroom, when back- ground knowledge is not shared by all participants. What is usually considered to belong to the universal knowledge of the Western civilisation may appear to be only relatively universal or not universal at all. According to Gerard Genette (1997), intertextuality is a textual strategy which may appear in the form of quotation or allusion that imply “a relationship of co-presence between two texts or among several texts” (p. 1). Allusion as the type of intertextual references that translators have to deal with in translation of LSP texts can be conditionally classified into three categories with regard to degree of universality and compatibility. The first group comprises allusions that can be considered to be relatively universal, belonging to the general world knowledge or establishing reference to widely known facts, events, personali- ties or artefacts. These allusions rarely pose any significant challenge in transla- tion. However, it is expected that the users possess the necessary individual background knowledge to decode their meaning. The second group includes al- lusions that are shared by both source and target languages as a result of close language contacts, and thus are also quite easily transferrable across the work- ing languages. The third group covers allusions that are specific for a particular language, culture or field of knowledge. These allusions pose considerable chal- lenge in the process of interlingual transfer, and should be analyzed individually in a particular context. It is important to stress that in the case of LSP text trans- lation the degree of universality of allusion will greatly depend on the thematic field of the discourse. Within the framework of professional communication, for instance, economists and architects will use references to different realms of knowledge and operate with different sets of allusions. The following extract provides insights into the types of challenges stu- dent translators have to face decoding allusive references in the source text: 281 Larisa Ilynska, Tatjana Smirnova, Marina Platonova Dorothy and her troop presented their requests to the Wizard, who demanded that they first vanquish the Wicked Witch of the West, representing the McKinley/Rocke- feller faction in Ohio (then considered a Western state). The financial powers of the day were the Morgan/Wall Street/Cleveland faction in the East (the Wicked Witch of the East) and this Rockefeller-backed contingent from Ohio, the state of McKinley, Hanna, and Rockefeller’s Standard Oil cartel. (Brown, 2008, p. 18) Allusive references in the excerpt can be established at several levels: allusions to F. Baum’s bookThe Wizard of Oz and allusions to political and economic land- scape of the USA at the end of the 19th century. In this case, two seemingly unrelated fields of reference overlap and are explained one in terms of another, which requires a complex approach to text analysis and lateral thinking to elicit relevant information and decode the author’s propositions. The text is abundant in references that can be identified only by advanced learners of English, and due to extreme information density, it is complicated to establish appropriate relationships between units of information. Items of professional economic vocabulary are often based on allusions. If the source and target readers share the background knowledge referred to by an allusion, allusion can be easily reproduced in translation; however, in the op- posite case, it may become a stumbling block for a novice translator. For exam- ple, such professionalisms denoting the types of takeover strategy as scorched earth strategy and Lady Macbeth strategy, which come from the dictionary at the Investopedia website (www.investopedia.com/dictionary), can be relatively easily represented in Russian by means of calques, and they will be transparent for the target audience. At the same time, the itemmad hatter taken from the same source and denoting an incompetent CEO prone to making spontaneous unsubstantiated decisions may not be so easily decoded because it is highly con- text dependent and may appear ambiguous if transferred literally. The context of use has a major impact on the meaning of another item of professional vo- cabulary in the sphere of business and finance:May Day. This traditional signal of emergency acquired new meaning on May 1, 1975, when the US government liberalized domestic financial markets (Zweig, 2015). In the context under dis- cussion, the lexical item has a positive connotation, signifying change and liber- ation, rather than emergency and distress. A translator specializing in the field of finance should be aware of these varying meanings. The main difficulty in translation of allusions lies in the fact that student translators sometimes simply do not identify a certain reference as being an al- lusion. Contemporary search engines allow to find any relevant information quickly and efficiently; the problem is if a student does not know what to search for or whether it is necessary to search for additional information, because they perceive the text literally. The following excerpt from the source text (ST)Currency 282 Application of LSP texts in translator training Wars: The Making of the Next Global Crisis by James Rickards (2011) and the target translation (TT) by a student translator may well illustrate this point. The student failed to identify the phraseWe the People as a reference to the Pream- ble to the United States Constitution and translated the phrase literally, ulti- mately failing to communicate the message of the source text. ST: The media, governments and business interests assure the public that We the People have the knowledge to make these decisions. TT: Интересы средств массовой информации, правительства и предприятий за- веряют общественность,что у нас, у людей[emphasis added], имеются знания для того, чтобы принимать эти решения. Decoding of allusions in a foreign language is complicated for the users because they can be ambiguous and polysemic. The author can activate only one facet of meaning, and the readers will have to determine which meaning is relevant for a specific context. One of the learning activities that can be used to promote competence in decoding and translation of allusions is an awareness test where students have to determine whether an allusion is universal (Group 1), matching in the source and target languages (Group 2), or language- or cul- ture-specific (Group 3). If students are not familiar with a certain allusion, they are invited to check the meaning of the item in question and to consider its use in various contexts. In such a way, students develop textual competence and enhance background knowledge. Awareness raising activities are one of the mechanisms to minimize the possible effects of differences in prior knowledge among the students within a group. At times, intertextual reference would not be recognized by the majority of the readers and sometimes the reader, on the contrary, may extract more information from the text than originally encoded by the author. In other words, the scope of meaning communicated by an intertextual reference may not al- ways fully coincide on the part of the author and the reader. Nevertheless, at least some information encoded in an intertextual reference should belong to their shared knowledge. Nord (1991) and Leppihalme (1997, p. 80) consider cul- tural familiarity of the source text allusion to the target readers a major success factor in translating allusions. 5. Methodology of LSP translator training Popular LSP texts as a medium for translator training have a number of im- portant benefits and some minor drawbacks that can be easily overcome if ad- dressed properly. Using these texts instead of purely technical texts devoid of genre, register, and style variations provides an opportunity for student translators to 283 Larisa Ilynska, Tatjana Smirnova, Marina Platonova develop advanced text processing and decoding skills, dealing with translation of stylistically marked vocabulary to become aware of expressive resources of both the source and target languages and to develop sensitivity to specifics of socio-pragmatic language use. Popular LSP texts also offer considerable benefits with regard to develop- ment of factual and conceptual knowledge as well as training of advanced termi- nological competence. In contrast to purely technical texts that make use of stand- ardized terminological resources, popular LSP texts contain not only the terms used in a particular field, but they are also abundant in professionalisms and ad hoc lexical units denoting new, innovative or imaginary concepts. Knowledge about the status of a particular lexical item within a particular language for special purposes is important for an LSP translator and allows them to make informed choice in the process of translating professional vocabulary. Moreover, taking into consideration that many professionalisms and ad hoc items often do not have tar- get language counterparts, student translators learn to solve potential translation problems, thus developing their procedural knowledge. Each message of an original text communicates the individual author’s opinion, attitude, or assessment, which may or may be not shared by the reader. One of the new competences a translator should develop is the ability to stay up to date with the rapid changes occurring in the working languages: new words, new meanings of existing words, and buzz words which come and go out of fash- ion and get obsolete very quickly (e.g., linguistic memes and folk etymology). Thus, one of the challenges student translators have to face is translation of novel pieces of professional vocabulary coined for a particular purpose to re- fer to a concrete media event. Such items are launched, become topical and disappear as soon as the event is not in the headlines anymore. Translating items of this kind, novice translators, apart from the obvious exercise in dealing with non-equivalent vocabulary, also promote their awareness of the current issues discussed in the source language media, thereby developing their socio- linguistic competence. It is very important to identify and estimate the effect of such factors as information density and vocabulary load on language change. Two examples of such ad hoc items are professionalisms baby bills and mini Madoff. The former is defined by the Investopedia dictionary as a hypo- thetical nickname for the smaller companies that would have been formed if Microsoft had been broken up for violation of antitrust rules in 2000. These companies have never been formed, and the event itself is not topical any more, but the term is still listed in professional databases (e.g., Investopedia and the financial dictionary at The Free Dictionary: http://financial-dictionary.the- freedictionary.com) and may potentially appear in economic press. According to the Investopedia dictionary, mini Madoff is used to denote financial con men 284