International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2017, Volume 29, Number 2, 309-380 http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/ ISSN 1812-9129 A Workbook for Scaffolding Mentored Undergraduate Research Experiences in the Social and Behavioral Sciences Erin Colbert-White Elizabeth Simpson University of Puget Sound University of Miami Research mentors strive to ensure that undergraduates gain research skills and develop professionally during mentored research experiences in the sciences. We created the SURE (Specialized Undergraduate Research Experience) Workbook, a freely-available, interactive guide to scaffold student learning during this process. The Workbook: (1) identifies mentees’ relevant strengths and areas for improvement, (2) encourages effective long-term goal setting, (3) ensures clear communication to facilitate a positive mentor-mentee working relationship, (4) exposes mentees to all phases of the research process, (5) develops mentees’ autonomy for research and related professional experiences, and (6) offers mentors a concrete assessment tool to evaluate student participation and development over the course of the research experience. Hands-on research experiences can be invaluable and transformative in undergraduates’ professional development, and we predict that the additional structure and standardization provided by the SURE Workbook will help maximize student learning and performance during such experiences. Thinking ahead, mentees who cultivate positive attitudes about research by using the SURE Workbook may be more inclined to pursue research professions and effectively mentor others when they graduate. Daphne was thrilled to begin her junior year as a 1996, p. 6). Collaborations between students and research assistant. Unfortunately, her faculty mentor’s faculty have even been described as the “pedagogy for frequent traveling made him unavailable to mentor her, the twenty-first century” (e.g., Dotterer, 2002, p. 81). and he assigned Daphne to work with one of his In the present paper, we highlight why graduate students. Daphne came into the lab each week undergraduate research participation is important, and completed her assigned tasks, but she rarely saw including the benefits to undergraduates and their the graduate student or the faculty mentor, except at mentors, and how we as mentors can increase the weekly lab meetings. Consequently, she failed to likelihood that undergraduates have a positive and well- develop any new skills or ideas and felt discouraged rounded research experience. We then present a that she was used for the tedious lab tasks nobody else learning tool we developed to address some of the wanted to do. At the end of the semester she decided common challenges faced by mentees and mentors in research was not for her and took a different path. the behavioral and social sciences: the SURE Daphne's friend, Allison, was equally excited to (Specialized Undergraduate Research Experience) begin a mentored research experience. Allison's Workbook, available in the Supplementary Materials. semester was quite unlike Daphne's. Her mentor met This interactive guide scaffolds learning in the seven with her regularly one-on-one and gave her major phases of the research cycle (i.e., beginning with opportunities to learn about various phases of the the literature review and ending with dissemination of research process. Allison, like Daphne, worked hard to findings and professional development), and it is complete each task, but she was always aware of the intended to be used by mentors as a structured long-term study goals. In doing so, she developed many assessment technique for undergraduate researchers. useful skills and was inspired to apply to graduate school to continue doing research. The Benefits and Popularity of Mentored Research Although these specific stories are fiction, many Experience undergraduates report similar positive and negative experiences (e.g., Linn, Palmer, Baranger, Gerard, & Undergraduates benefit from hands-on research Stone, 2015). One of the most important factors in experience (e.g., McConnell, Albert, & Marton, 2008). undergraduate student development is the nature and Likewise, research mentors—whether they are faculty, quality of students’ interactions with faculty beyond the post-doctorates or graduate students—benefit from classroom (Astin, 1993). In the social and behavioral having undergraduate research collaborators. In theory, sciences, hands-on research experience outside of the undergraduate science majors should develop an classroom (i.e., not part of a research methods or other understanding of the research process and have an course)—either in an experimental laboratory or in the opportunity to explore a research area to see if it is one in field—is vital for preparing students for graduate which they wish to pursue a career. Such research school or other professional endeavors. The National experiences transform students into self-learners (Wolfe, Science Foundation reports that such experiences are Reynolds, & Krantz, 2002). Through hands-on research, “one of the most powerful of instructional tools” (NSF, students experience a higher level of engagement Colbert-White and Simpson Undergraduate Research Experiences 310 compared to traditional lecture-based instruction (Elmes, have worked with dozens of undergraduate students in 2002), and a higher level of engagement has been five laboratories with 20 years of combined mentoring demonstrated to improve student learning (Bluestone, experience. Such experiences include supervising 2007). Participating in mentored research experiences students on independent and honors thesis projects, engages students in experiential learning (Benson & supporting student conference presentations, and Blackman, 2003; Bluestone, 2007; Longmore, Dunn, & publishing work with undergraduates at conferences Jarboe, 1996) and has been shown to increase students’ and in refereed journals. Based on our personal self-reported interest in applying to graduate or experiences, as well as a careful examination of Linn professional programs (e.g., Eagan et al., 2013). and colleagues’ (2015) review of effective mentoring, Additionally, there are practical benefits to we identified the following six goals as crucial for a undergraduate research. For example, during mentored mutually beneficial experience for both mentors and research experiences, students develop technical and mentees: (1) identify mentees’ relevant strengths and interpersonal skills, such as analytic, logic, synthesis, areas for improvement (e.g., scientific writing, using writing, speaking, and reading skills (Wolfe et al., 2002), as library resources), (2) encourage long-term goal setting well as independent learning skills (Ishiyama, 2002; (e.g., improve time management skills, become familiar Kardash, 2000; Landrum & Nelsen, 2002). These with a new statistical method or software program), (3) foundational skills are transferrable across disciplines and establish clear communication to facilitate a positive beyond the classroom. Research experiences also increase mentor-mentee working relationship, (4) expose students’ marketability for graduate programs and mentees to all phases of the research process, (5) employment (American Psychological Association, 2007; develop mentees’ autonomy for research and related Elmes, 2002; Kierniesky, 2005). Beyond these practical professional experiences, and (6) offer mentors a benefits, collaborative research experiences improve concrete assessment tool to evaluate student students’ academic achievement, interpersonal interactions, participation and development over the course of the and self-esteem (Prince, 2004). Thus, it is not surprising that research experience. students view research experiences positively (Chapdelaine In an effort to improve and structure undergraduate & Chapman, 1999; Gibson, Kahn, & Mathie, 1996; research experiences, we kept the above objectives in Landrum & Nelsen, 2002). In fact, graduating seniors often mind and created the SURE Workbook assessment tool advise first-year students to get involved in research (see Table 1 for the SURE Workbook table of contents; (Norcross, Slotterback, & Krebs, 2001). see Supplemental Materials for a full copy of the Given the benefits of participating in research Workbook). Along with ensuring at least three one-on- experiences, one might expect (and hope) all students one meetings per semester between mentors and mentees participate in at least one mentored research experience (i.e., preliminary, mid-semester, and final), the SURE during their undergraduate careers. Indeed, Workbook was designed to scaffold learning in the six undergraduate students commonly participate in major phases of the research process: conducting a research, most often toward the end of their review of relevant literature, following ethical research undergraduate careers; however, the nature and number guidelines, identifying the design and methodology for of opportunities for undergraduate research varies the project, analyzing data, discussing implications of the greatly across institutions. One study found that out of findings, and developing professionally (see Figure 1 for 3,200 students surveyed in SBES disciplines (social, sample page). We designed the Workbook to be flexible behavioral, economic sciences), about half participated for any science mentor and undergraduate researcher, in undergraduate research experiences (Russell, including students joining a project at different stages of Hancock, & McCullough, 2007). For contrast, in the completion or taking on a small or large number of roles field of psychology, most departments in four-year within a project. Regardless of the research stage or the institutions require undergraduates to participate in at mentee’s role, the Workbook is designed to make least one course-based laboratory or structured research mentees mindful of the entire research process by asking experience, and between one-third to half of all them to become familiar with the project’s topic and psychology departments require an individual research research design. project (e.g., Cooney & Griffith, 1994; Terry, 1996). We intend for mentors to also benefit from using the SURE Workbook with their mentees. First and The Development of the SURE Workbook foremost, the Workbook fosters communication by providing mentors with discussion points to strengthen Purpose and Objectives the mentor-mentee working relationship. In addition, the Workbook ensures that mentees are knowledgeable We have been involved in undergraduate research of the project as a whole. Knowing more about the experiences as mentees and as mentors at both project is likely to enhance the mentee’s feelings of teaching-focused and research-focused institutions. We ownership, which should increase mentees’ effort and Colbert-White and Simpson Undergraduate Research Experiences 311 Table 1 SURE Workbook Table of Contents 1. Preface 2. Student Self-Assessment of Current Knowledge and Mentoring Style a. Report knowledge, skills, and comfort levels on various aspects of the research process b. Determine preferred mentoring style and mentee work ethic 3. Early Semester Meeting with Research Mentor a. Establish expectations of student and research mentor b. Set realistic goals and a timeline for the semester c. Optional contract between mentor and mentee 4. Mid-Semester Meeting with Research Mentor a. Reevaluate goals, set new goals b. Talking points to discuss student’s experiences 5. Final Meeting with Research Mentor a. Reassess original goals and timeline, discuss accomplishments b. Student and mentor share constructive feedback c. Identify and discuss student’s future goals 6. The Research Process a. Literature review b. Research ethics c. Methodology d. Analyses e. Discussion f. Professional development 7. Suggested Resources for Students and Mentors a. Recommended readings and websites for students b. Recommended readings and websites for mentors 8. Answers to Self-Assessment Questions 9. Appendix attention to detail (Todd, Bannister, & Clegg, 2004). Document can easily be modified for other We assert that the difference between a research disciplines. From the results of the self-assessment, “assistant” and a “collaborator” is the level of the mentor-mentee team can work to create short- investment. Whether mentees are entering into an and long-term goals for the experience and beyond. established research program, or developing As described earlier, the Workbook is flexible in independent projects, the SURE Workbook allows that it can be used at various phases of the project, mentees to become research collaborators by fostering a from its inception and design, to its final global understanding of the research process with publication. Further, students can describe their respect to the project on which they are working. Once specific roles in the project and track progress completed, the Workbook is also a written record of a towards their learning goals throughout the student’s contributions over the term. Thus, mentors experience. can assign sections as a form of assessment if a letter Next, the SURE Workbook aims to help grade is to be assigned to the experience, and use the Undergraduate researchers who are interested in contents of the completed Workbook to enhance letters improving their research skills through hands-on of recommendation, if requested. mentored research experience. To this end, we provide a professional development section with tips Uniqueness of the Workbook for applying to graduate school and jobs in order to aid in the transition to post-graduation life (see The name SURE was chosen to reflect our goals Figure 2). We intend for the Workbook to be a useful for the Workbook. It is Specialized to each resource for students beyond the research project. student’s needs. The Workbook begins with a self- The Research and Experience components of the assessment of students’ research skills and personal SURE title are self-evident. The overarching purpose of work ethics. The questions are designed for a the SURE Workbook is to expose students to the major psychology student, but the downloadable Word phases of the research process while aiding in the Colbert-White and Simpson Undergraduate Research Experiences 312 Figure 1 Excerpt from SURE Workbook Analyses section. The section asks mentees to first consider how raw data will be organized, what statistical software will be used, details of hypothesis testing, and effect size. The section ends by asking mentees to sketch an appropriate figure representing the results of one of their statistical tests. development of a fulfilling working relationship laboratory setting. Finally, and perhaps most with a faculty, post-doctorate, or graduate student critically, the SURE Workbook is a method of mentor. In addition, the Workbook is a testament to assessing learning outcomes and ensuring the mentee’s hard work and visible progress, which achievement of the six goals of research mentoring, otherwise may be overlooked or forgotten in a busy which we outlined above. Colbert-White and Simpson Undergraduate Research Experiences 313 Figure 2 Excerpt from SURE Workbook Professional Development section. The section includes information on résumé/CV updating, tips for writing a personal statement, etiquette in requesting letters of reference, and avenues for communicating research findings. Addressing Undergraduate Researchers’ Challenges survey to obtain information about graduate students’ histories conducting research as undergraduates. We Although research opportunities for undergraduates primarily focused on their perceptions of their research are common and many students have positive experiences, the quality of their research training and experiences, negative experiences are not uncommon contact with mentors, and anecdotes that captured their (Linn et al., 2015). We, too, observed this following an experiences. After obtaining approval from the anonymous survey at a highest research-focused institutional review board, we surveyed 24 graduate doctoral institution (see Appendix). We developed this students who participated in research experiences as Colbert-White and Simpson Undergraduate Research Experiences 314 undergraduates. The survey was administered Inadequate Support online. Students described their home institutions as baccalaureate liberal arts institutions (31%), An effective mentored research experience requires higher research activity doctoral institutions (4%), guidance (i.e., structured support, scaffolding of and highest research activity doctoral institutions learning), but this amount may vary with the (65%). They also reported their undergraduate developmental level of the mentee, the complexity of institutions considered research to be “not the tasks, and the goals of both the mentor and mentee. important” (4%), “slightly important” (12%), Consequently, the supervision style utilized by the “important” (23%), “very important” (15%), and mentor may either be too much (e.g., micromanaging) “extremely important” (46%). These data suggest a or not enough (e.g., mentor traveling and unavailable range of mentoring quality, campus cultures/values, for regular meetings). To complicate matters, young and research experiences. adults are often unaware of the amount of guidance Respondents described their overall research they require or may feel uncomfortable asking for experience as “neutral” (13%), “positive” (29%), or additional support from mentors. In the Workbook’s “very positive” (58%), with no participants reporting a provided self-assessment, the mentor and mentee will “very negative” or “negative” experience. A variety of get a sense of the mentee’s entering research knowledge positive emotions and feelings were noted (e.g., and skills. This should help the mentor tailor tasks and excited, challenged, prepared for graduate school, responsibilities to the student’s intellectual level and appreciated, important). Further, only one respondent motivation. Also, during the first meeting, the SURE described their experience as “not significant” to their Workbook asks mentors and mentees to reflect on and academic development. Despite mostly positive discuss issues such as work ethic and expectations for perceptions, 67% of respondents reported at least one the term. This represents another way the Workbook negative emotion or feeling (e.g., overworked, serves as a communication facilitator, effectively neglected, abused, disappointed) associated with their building a positive rapport between mentor and mentee. time as an undergraduate researcher. Six themes emerged from the negative emotions Misunderstanding and feelings that were reported. We used these themes to further enhance the Workbook. In the next section, Disappointments and disagreements often result we review the negative experience themes our student from failures to communicate expectations (Young & participants reported and briefly describe how the Perrewé, 2000). Mentors and mentees must explicitly SURE Workbook addresses the challenges perceived by share their thoughts at the beginning and throughout the undergraduate researchers. term. Mentors need to listen to mentees and be sensitive to both verbal and nonverbal communication, especially Lack of Time or Resources signs of frustration or distress. As explained above, one of the defining features of the SURE Workbook is the The relationship between undergraduates and their emphasis on communication and accountability. research mentors is time-bound and therefore requires Through the provided discussion points, structured that mentors prioritize their time to work with their meetings, reflective self-assessment, commitment mentees (Anderson & Shore, 2008). Additionally, contract, and goal setting, the mentor-mentee mentors must use caution not to take on too many partnership is enhanced by the Workbook’s mentees, as mentors must be willing to devote a communication-building exercises. substantial amount of time and resources (e.g., access to computers, research equipment) to each mentee. Given Intellectual Contributions and Authorship Behar-Horenstein, Roberts, and Dix’s (2010) recent findings that mentees can feel neglected and shuttled To better engage undergraduates in the research off to unofficial mentors in the lab (e.g., mentor’s process, mentors should give mentees some freedom to graduate students), accountability for the mentor would define and guide their research experiences. The SURE be beneficial. The SURE Workbook is designed to Workbook is designed to facilitate these discussions preemptively address issues of accountability. It during the first mentor-mentee meeting. reassures undergraduates that they will meet with their Encouragement, incorporation, and acknowledgement faculty mentor at least three times during the semester of mentees’ ideas are three important steps towards to discuss their projects and to set and evaluate feasible making mentees feel valued. If mentees’ contributions goals for the experience. In addition, the optional are significant, some discipline-specific organizations mentor-mentee contract establishes meeting frequencies like the APA state that undergraduates should be given at the beginning of the term so that both mentor and authorship. This authorship may take the form of mentee can agree on the commitment (see Figure 3). publishing in an undergraduate journal (e.g., Psi Chi Colbert-White and Simpson Undergraduate Research Experiences 315 Figure 3 Optional SURE Workbook mentor-mentee contract to be filled out during initial meeting. Journal of Psychological Research), presenting at 2003) that authorship conflicts often occur because conferences, or publishing in peer-reviewed journals. of inadequate communication at the start and Although undergraduates can earn authorship, some periodically throughout a project regarding the mentors vary in their willingness to include merits of authorship, expectations, and agreement on undergraduates as co-authors (Fine & Kurdek, 1993). how the work shall be divided. The Workbook The Workbook’s initial self-assessment addresses ensures both the mentor and mentee share and track research ethics, including authorship conflicts, to their goals for the term, minimizing the potential for educate mentees. We agree with others (e.g., Fisher, such conflicts. Colbert-White and Simpson Undergraduate Research Experiences 316 Depth of Experience: Balancing Productivity and who are designing and conducting independent studies, Learning assessment may come in the form of a written research report. However, for students who are assisting with a Mentors are described as being both “talent scouts” project that is already in progress, assessment can be and “gatekeepers,” according to Anderson and Shore more difficult. Mentors who use the SURE Workbook (2008). That is, mentors seek out mentees with have a standard assessment that can be used to assign a exceptional skills and strengths, and they match letter or satisfactory/unsatisfactory grade. At the end of mentees’ strengths to appropriate research tasks. At the the semester, mentees can turn in their Workbook for same time, mentors can selectively exclude certain review and mentors can evaluate the extent to which the mentees from becoming involved in various research student has progressed through the stages of the assignments if mentees are perceived as not being research process with respect to the project. worthy of the investment. Thus, mentors are in a Many programs and departments assume that position of authority over mentees and may—perhaps mentors are focused on students’ learning (Kardash, without awareness—use this power to exploit them 2000). While exceptionally skilled mentors exist and (Blevins-Knabe, 1992; Green & Bauer, 1995). achieve great success in navigating undergraduates Undergraduate mentees, compared to graduate students, through the research process, other mentor-mentee may be less capable of recognizing and advocating for pairs may benefit from an assessment tool for themselves when confronted with situations in which guidance and standardization for both the mentee and they may be taken advantage of (Anderson & Shore, mentor. For this reason, department heads or 2008). For example, a mentor may ask a mentee to do undergraduate coordinators may wish to implement tasks outside of the scope of the project, or academics the SURE Workbook for all undergraduate in general, which would clearly be inappropriate (e.g., researchers as a preventative measure against babysitting the mentor’s children). In addition, mentors “absentee mentors.” Also, as we mentioned, there may fail to integrate undergraduates into the entire can be issues with communication between mentors research process (e.g., understanding of the background and mentees when either party fails to discuss literature, theoretical motivation). In part, the cause of expectations of the other, or expectations of the such problems may be that the primary goal of research experience itself. Our tool may also prove to undergraduate research for some mentors is be a useful resource for research mentoring programs productivity (Kierniesky, 2005). This narrow focus can for graduate students to learn about the expectations be highly detrimental to the quality of a student’s for effective mentoring (e.g., Loyola University experience. Mentors must be constantly mindful of this Chicago’s Research Mentoring Program, Horowitz & potential conflict of interest. The SURE Workbook Christopher, 2013). Time management tips, a goal- helps by making the student’s learning explicit and setting section, and a midterm progress report are all visible throughout the research process, while also provided in the Workbook, and regular one-on-one encouraging the student to communicate any concerns meetings between mentors and mentees are they might have. encouraged. Organized Assessment for Mentored Research Conclusions and Future Directions Experiences Recent papers, such as Linn and colleagues’ (2015) Departments need to better integrate undergraduate meta-analysis, highlight the need for a standardized students into ongoing research (Wayment & Dickson, measure for assessing the quality of undergraduate 2008), and we think students’ research experiences research experiences. We think that the SURE need more oversight, evaluation, and structure (i.e., Workbook holds promise for accomplishing this goal. organized support, scaffolding for learning). In some The Workbook allows for pre- and post-testing of research settings, the only requirements are that the students’ skills in self-identified areas for improvement, work must be educational, and/or that students must encourages open communication regarding work for a certain number of hours per week for each expectations, involvement, and tailored goal-setting for credit hour earned. Such requirements allow for great the experience, and, when completed, can stand alone flexibility which, in some cases, may be useful, but (or accompany a lab notebook) as a testament to the which can also increase the possibility that a student student’s development over time. While devising a tool might not benefit in the specific ways they expected to facilitate these outcomes is our goal, some assert that going into the experience. Further, students may receive there is insufficient research on what actually makes a only vague feedback (e.g., satisfactory/unsatisfactory mentoring program effective (e.g., Gershenfeld, grade) lacking a structured assessment with 2014)—indicating the need to formally test the SURE personalized and constructive feedback. For students Workbook’s effectiveness. Colbert-White and Simpson Undergraduate Research Experiences 317 We are interested in exploring the extent to which Bluestone, C. (2007). Infusing active learning into the the SURE Workbook may influence mentors’ and research methods unit. College Teaching, 55, 91- mentees’ research experiences across different types of 95. doi:10.3200/CTCH.55.3.91-95 institutions, including teaching-focused and research- Chapdelaine, A., & Chapman, B. L. (1999). Using focused schools. In addition, we think it is important to community based research to teach research assess how this tool affects mentees at various points in methods. 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An examination of career-related support methods classes. Teaching Sociology, 24(1), 84-91. and social support among mentors and protégés. McConnell, W., Albert, R. G., & Marton, J. P. (2008). Journal of Management, 26, 611-632. Involving college students in social science doi:10.1016/S0149-2063 (00)00049-0 research. Transformative Dialogues: Teaching & ____________________________ Learning Journal, 29(1), 1-8. National Science Foundation. (1996). Shaping the ERIN COLBERT-WHITE is an Assistant Professor of future: New expectations for undergraduate Psychology at the University of Puget Sound in education in science, mathematics, engineering, Tacoma, WA. Her strong interest in student learning and technology (NSF Publication No. 96-139). outcomes has led her to facilitate undergraduate Arlington, VA. Retrieved from workshops around the Puget Sound area on the topic of http://www.nsf.gov/publications effective study skills. Erin enjoys working closely with Norcross, J. C., Slotterback, C. S., & Krebs, P. M. psychology and biology undergraduates in her Animal (2001). Senior advice: Graduating seniors write to Behavior and Cognition research laboratory. psychology freshmen. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 27-29. doi:10.1207/S15328023TOP2801_06 ELIZABETH A. SIMPSON is an Assistant Professor of Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A Psychology at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, review of the research. Journal of Engineering FL. The Association for Psychological Science Education, 93, 223-231. designated her a 2015 Rising Star in recognition of her Russell, S. H., Hancock, M. P., & McCullough, J. innovative research. She enjoys mentoring students on (2007). Benefits of undergraduate research research projects, and teaching undergraduate-level experiences. Science, 316, 548-549. Child and Adolescent Development, and graduate-level doi:10.1126/science.1140384 Cognitive Development. Terry, R. L. (1996). Characteristics of psychology departments at primarily undergraduate Acknowledgements institutions. Council on Undergraduate Research Quarterly, 17, 86–90. Special thanks to members of the University of Georgia’s Todd, M., Bannister, P., & Clegg, S. (2004). Psychology Educator Development Association for Independent inquiry and the undergraduate feedback on earlier drafts of the SURE Workbook. .