Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 37 MOTIVATIONAL ATTITUDES OF ELT STUDENTS TOWARDS USING COMPUTERS FOR WRITING AND COMMUNICATION by Ali KARAKAŞ Mehmet Akif Ersoy University in Burdur, Turkey akarakas @ mehmetakif.edu.tr Abstract This article will provide an overview of whether students have positive motivational attitudes towards the use of computers for writing and communication. Firstly, it summarizes the basic theories of motivation and then explains the relationship between language and motivation, and the use of computers and motivation. Then, it aims to explore the aspects of computer use that students find motivating and investigates the differences among these aspects for students having different backgrounds in terms of computer skills. 45 first grade ELT students of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University participated in the study. The data was collected through a questionnaire adapted from Warschauer (1996). The obtained data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, t-tests, Manova and Anova on SPSS. The findings indicated that participants mainly made use of computers for communication, learning, achievement and empowerment. Plus, their personal aspects, except for computer knowledge, related to computers, did not significantly affect the participants’ motivational attitudes towards the use of computers. There were not even significant differences between male and female participants in terms of being motivated to use computers and computer facilities for communication and writing. Finally, having or not having a computer at home was not a decisive factor influencing motivational attitudes of participants. Introduction While learning a language, the learner is inevitably exposed to affective factors which are essential to a certain extent in foreign/second language learning. Of these, the most debated one in the literature is motivation and its effects on the language learners. In its simple term, the study of motivation is concerned with the energy, direction and exploration of the language learner’s behavior, namely, what drives the learner to behave in this way or another way during the language learning process (Deci & Ryan, 1985). However, motivation is such a complicated issue that it is almost impossible to define it by a single theory (Petrides, 2006). Therefore, a great number of theories of 37 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 38 motivation have emerged in various disciplines. The theories and their main assumptions related to language learning area are briefly summed up in the following paragraph. 1. Literature Review 1.1. Theories of motivation According to Behaviorist view, motivation is an external stimuli and reinforcement. In this theory, the environment surrounding the students and the teacher as a role model are of prime importance. However, motivation is regarded as an internal factor by cognitivists. Therefore, those motivated intrinsically are driven to act without any external factors like earning more money, being respected and similar reasons. What they aim is to get satisfaction and pleasure out of the actions they do. Another theory is achievement motivation theory that focuses on the results of the performed actions; that is to say, whether one becomes successful as a result of his action or not. As a result of the action taken, the learner might have a sense of achievement or develop a fear of failure. From the perspectives of Humanistic Approach, the needs of the self are the basic pillars of motivation. This theory assumes that when the basic needs are not met, learners might not be motivated to meet higher level needs like self-esteem and self- actualization. Finally, Social cognition theory of motivation handles the issue of motivation from two angles: social and cognitive sides. This theory is about learner beliefs in their own competencies, their own goal setting, monitoring themselves and controlling their own learning through interaction with others. All the theories mentioned and their components together with supporters are summarized below in Table 1. Table 1: Summary of theories of motivation (Hanson-Smith, 1997). Theory Name Theorist/Year Components A- Behavioral 1- Classical conditioning 1- Stimulus, response, association Theories 1- Pavlov 2- Operant conditioning 2- Stimulus, response, reward = => extrinsic motivation 2- Skinner 3- Observational/social reinforcement => external stimuli and 3- Bandura learning 3- Modeling (imitation) reinforcement B- Cognitive Theories 1- Expectancy-value 1- Vroom / 1964 1- Expectancy of success 38 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 39 => intrinsic motivation 2- Attribution theory 2- Heider, 1958 / 2- Attribute success/failure to => one’s active search 3- Cognitive dissonance Weiner, 1974 factors for meaning and 3- Festinger / 1957 3- Act to resolve conflict satisfaction in life. 1- Need for achievement 1- Atkinson & 2- Fear of failure C- Achievement Raynor / 1974 3- Goal theory: Mastery Motivation Theories 2- Locke & Performance, Social Latham / 1994 goals D- Humanistic 1- Self-actualization, esteem, Theories belongingness, safety, 1- Hierarchy of Needs 1- Maslow / 1954 => the need for personal physiological. 2- Hierarchy of 2- Alderfer, 1972 growth. 2- Growth, relatedness, existence Motivational Needs 3- Deci & Ryan, => emphasis on needs. 3- Self-determination 1985 freedom, choice and 3- Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic self-determination. motivation 1- Judging one's own ability 1- Self-efficacy 1-2 Bandura / E- Social Cognition 2- Establishing goals and 2- Self-regulation 1986, 1997 attaining them Since all the aforementioned theories deal with particular faculties of human beings, they fail to see the human being as a whole. Therefore, this study holds an eclectic and holistic view of motivation by referring to learners as human beings, who have embodied biological, cognitive and social structures in their nature from birth. Focusing merely on one constituent may lead us to overlook the effects of other structures in motivating learners. These effects especially play an important role in language teaching since learners go through many diverse processes during language acquisition or learning. They interact with each other, use cognitive strategies to cope with the difficulties they face, and try to satisfy their lower and higher needs. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the relationship between motivation and language learning to have a clear picture of success and failure in language learning. 1.2. Motivation and Language Learning Starting with Gardner and Lambert’s study (1959), motivation was held to be responsible for second and foreign language learning achievement to a greater degree than language aptitude. Then, in a subsequent study (1972), the division of motivation into two basic types as integrative (a desire to integrate with target into target community) and instrumental (for practical benefits) was proposed by Gardner and Lambert. Following this, another distinction into intrinsic (motivation that comes from inside) and extrinsic (motivation that comes from outside factors) motivation was made 39 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 40 by Deci and Ryan (1985). Since then, the importance of motivation for language learners has been recognized by teachers and researchers in their classroom implementations. In the last decade, there have been many articles and books re- exploring the relationship of motivation to language teaching and learning (Gömleksiz, 2001; Ruohotie & Nokelainen, 2003; Petrides, 2006; Taguchi, 2006; Wang, 2008; Wang, 2009; Lucas et al., 2010). The above-mentioned conventional framework analyzing motivation in language learning has been subjected to many criticisms due to its inadequacies. The main point of criticism is that the framework is too simple to tackle the concept of motivation considering the abovementioned theories of motivation. Therefore, an expansion and adjustment of the traditional framework to clarify the nature of language learning motivation is a fundamental issue (Crookes and Schmidt, 1991; Dörnyei, 1994). As an example of expansion and adjustment of the former frameworks, Dörnyei’s (1996) components of Foreign Language Learning Motivation, which consist of language level, learner level and learning situational level might be given. In the light of the previous studies, this paper, first and foremost, aims to shed light on the kinds of motivational attitudes of students towards the use of computers for writing and communication with respect to learning styles, motivation and personality. Secondly, the differences among the motivating aspects of computers for students of different backgrounds are to be investigated to see whether they affect the motivational attitudes of the students. Lastly, the sub-goal of the study is to draw pedagogical and practical implications out of the aforementioned frameworks to explore the connections between the specific aspects of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and student motivation in terms of writing and communication in and outside the classroom settings. 1.3. Relationship of Computers and Motivation Computers, which were primarily used for mathematical concerns at its birth, have had their unique place in every part of our lives. Soon afterwards they started to be utilized in general education especially in language learning, and the term ‘Computer-Assisted Language Learning’ (CALL), referring to the use of computers in the learning and teaching of English, appeared in the literature in early 1970s. Since then, the technology 40 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 41 has undergone a rapid process of improvement and computers in different sizes and functions have become available to almost anyone. CALL has played a facilitating role for language teachers and students since it helps students progress at their own pace, improve their language skills, study on one’s own without being dependent on anyone else, and gives them immediate feedback, corrections and error analysis (Hanson-Smith, 1997). Other than these benefits, affective sides of CALL like learning style, motivation, personality and other factors have been under question with the use of computers in language classes (Genç & Aydın, 2010). Of these, the effects of motivation and writing via computers on language learning and teaching have been studied widely in the literature (cf. Wu, 1992; Williams, 1993; Tyson, 1994; Warschauer, 1996; Ulusoy, 2006; Genç & Aydın, 2010). The common findings of these studies indicate that CALL has motivational value in teaching and learning language and its four skills, particularly writing. Despite these benefits, CALL also has some limitations in practice. Since “the computer is a human made tool which is incapable of action” without a user [teacher] it cannot guarantee achievement in the language class (Dündar, 2005: 196). If the teacher is not qualified enough in using computers and cannot support his teaching with relevant materials, expecting that students be motivated through CALL is not more than a childish dream. Besides, the ways of motivating students through computers have dramatically changed due to new technologies emerging in the last two decades. Another point is that language learning consists of many social, psychological, and cognitive aspects which are not found in other types of learning, and the motivating factors of a language learner who benefits from a computer might be different from those of other learners studying different subjects (Warschauer, 1996). Therefore, the teachers may have difficulty in adapting themselves to these technological innovations and finding a middle way between those aspects of learning. 1.4. Benefits of Computers in Writing and Communication Process After the introduction of computers in language teaching, the teaching of English has become more practical and fun for the learners. Daiute (1985) summarizes some of the benefits of computers in the writing process as follows: (1) they enable writers to focus on the point, 41 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 42 (2) they help learners see the spelling mistakes by highlighting the incorrect words (3) they provide students with a communication channel through which they intercommunicate with their friends and colleagues, (4) they make learning fun and stress-free. Ulusoy (2006) points out that “in the writing process, computer and computer software can be a valuable tool for many students” (2006: 58). Of course, language learners cannot be held outside this circle. They use word-processing, PowerPoint slide shows to prepare their assignments, homework, presentations and research papers. For at least three decades, word-processing has been available to students, but now it has been even more widespread due to the increasing number of computers, netbooks, even iPods at students’ disposal. It is getting more and more popular in some countries like Germany to take netbooks into the classes and jot down notes during the lectures. Some benefits of using word-processing in writing might be summed up as follows: (1) student motivation increases towards writing, (2) students easily revise their writing, (3) errors are highlighted and then their writing includes fewer spelling and grammar mistakes, (4) writing occurs in a standard way which increases the readability of the text, (5) writing becomes more visual and pleasant with the aiding tools of word processing like adding tables, drawing graphics, underlining and highlighting the important points in the text. Computers have also taken up a role in communication. People correspond with one another via e-mails and teleconferencing through computers and the Internet. It was a revolution for language learners, at that time, to communicate not only with their friends but also with native speakers from all parts of the world. With the advent of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC), it has become possible to establish human-to-human communication rather than human-to-machine. There are many practical advantages of CMC in the language classroom. Firstly, it presents an interactive learning environment to students independent of place and time limit. The cost is quite low compared to face-to-face student–teacher education. Shy or inhibited students can benefit from the individualized learning environment and become more open to communication and socialization (Lai & Kritsonsis, 2006). Therefore, it might be assumed that CMC plays a critical role in motivating students, even shy ones, 42 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 43 towards communication by providing less threatening and safer environment (Kroonenberg, 1994/1995; Lai & Kritsonis, 2006). Despite the allegations that computers have motivational aspects in foreign and second language students’ writing and communication, there are not many studies dealing with this issue. Moreover, those tackling the issue were conducted outside the context of Turkey. This is why, this study attempts to deal with this issue by addressing the following research questions: 1. What aspects of using a computer for writing and communication do second/foreign language students find motivating? 2. What differences exist among these motivating aspects for students of different backgrounds? 2. Methodology 2.1. Setting and Subjects This study was conducted at the Faculty of Education, University of Mehmet Akif Ersoy, Burdur. 45 first grade students from English Language Teaching (ELT) department participated in the study. Of them, 14 (31.1%) were male and 31 (68.9%) were female. 2.2. Data Collection Instrument The data collection tool, utilized for the purpose of the study was adapted from Warschauer (1996). The questionnaire was composed of two parts. The first part was concerned with participants’ knowledge of computer and demographic information like gender, home, age, self-rating of typing ability, self-rating of computer knowledge, possession of computer at home. The other part with a five-point Likert-scale (from strongly disagree to strongly agree) consisted of 30 statements about the use of computer for writing and communication. In detail, the first five items were about the use of computers for word-processing, the next eleven questioned the use of computers for interpersonal communication and the rest were related to the participants’ general feelings about using computers. 2.3. Design and Procedure 43 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 44 The participants of this study were given the questionnaire and were asked to answer the items on it. The anticipated responses were based on a 5-point scale ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). The students were informed about the goal of the study by the researcher. Besides, they were allowed to use a dictionary to look up the unknown words or consult the teacher. Students who were absent on the day of the administration of the questionnaires were excluded from the study. Out of fifty-five students, forty-five were available on the administration day. The researcher informed the students that participation to the study was voluntary and there would be no extra marks or rewards. The collection of all surveys took one class hour – 45 minutes. After having collected the data, the researcher coded and loaded all the items into SPSS 15.0 statistical software. Then, the data were analyzed by utilizing descriptive statistic tools (including mean, median, standard deviation, range, minimum) available in SPSS to understand the overall pattern of students’ responses. Moreover, to see the relationship between variables, t-tests, Manova and Anova analyses were conducted on SPSS 15.0. 2.4. Results Out of a total number of 45 respondents, 68.9% were female students whereas 31.9% were male. The fact that the number of female respondents was higher than that of males is an indication of the predominance of female students in the ELT teaching classes. The age range of the subjects was between 18 and 25, which indicated that there are either late-starters or those who already did a BA in another program like German or French Language Teaching or Literature. In addition to this demographic information, participants’ knowledge of computers was measured by self-rating their competence and use of computer facilities. First, the students were asked to rate their typing ability and knowledge of computers through a 5-point scale (from poor to excellent). Then, they were asked if they have a computer at home. Finally, their use of computer for word processing, e-mail and World Wide Web (www) were investigated to find out how much they use these facilities in their daily lives. For this reason, a 3-point scale (a lot- little- never) was applied. The overall pattern of the results is illustrated in Table 2 and 3. 44 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 45 Table 2. PC knowledge and typing ability of students. PC Knowledge Typing Ability Valid Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Poor 1 2.2 0 0 Fair 8 17.8 5 11.1 Good 21 46.7 27 60.0 Very good 12 26.7 9 20.0 Excellent 3 6.7 4 8.9 Total 45 100.0 45 100.0 As seen in Table 2, most participants have a very good typing command and their computer knowledge is comparatively good. It may be assumed that the subjects who have a good command of PC knowledge have a high typing ability. Moreover, almost all students use e-mails and the Internet a lot to correspond with others in their daily lives. The percentage of word-processing use is lower than those of e-mails and WWW. The reason may be that writing through word-processing is not regarded as communicative as e-mails. Table 3. Use of word-processing, e-mail and the Internet Word- e-mail WWW processing n % n % n % Valid a lot 17 37.8 27 60.0 34 75.6 a little 26 57.8 17 37.8 11 24.4 never 1 2.2 1 2.2 0 0 Total 44 97.8 45 100.0 45 100.0 Missing 1 2.2 Total 45 100.0 45 100.0 45 100.0 Research Question 1: What aspects of using a computer for writing and communication do second/foreign language students find motivating? In the second section of the survey, statements exploring students’ use of word- processing, interpersonal communication via computers and their feelings about using computers were directed at students. After the analysis of all the items on SPSS, the mean motivation score for all students was 3.9765, significantly higher than a hypothetical neutral score. Besides, mean scores on 26 of the 30 questions were higher 45 Teaching English with Technology, 11(3), 37-53, http://www.tewtjournal.org 46 than neutral (see Appendix for a complete listing). The items that were lower than neutral are 8, 30, 21 and 29 (see Table 4). Table 4. Statements with the lowest mean scores. Survey Questions Mean 8) I am more afraid to contact people by e-mail than in person. 2.0889 30) Computers makes people weak and powerless 2.3556 21) Using a computer is not worth the time and effort. 2.6136 29) Computers are usually very frustrating to work with. 2.8444 Among the individual questions, the most positive responses, at a mean of 4.5778 and significantly higher than many other questions, were given to statement 6, “I enjoy using the computer to communicate with people around the world”. The following highest statements were 15, 24, 12, 16, 20, 11, 7, 19, 28 and 17 (see Table 5). Table 5. Statements with the highest mean scores. Survey Questions Mean 15. Using e-mail and the Internet is a good way to learn more about different people and 4.4889 cultures. 24. Learning how to use computers is important for my career. 4.4444 12. An advantage of e-mail is you can contact people any time you want. 4.2955 16. Communicating by e-mail is a good way to improve my English. 4.2444 20. I want to continue using a computer in my English classes. 4.1778 11. E-mail helps people learn from each other 4.1111 7. I enjoy using the computer to communicate with my classmates. 4.0889 19. Using a computer gives me more chances to read and use authentic English. 4.0667 28. Using a computer gives me more chances to practice English 4.0444 17. Learning to use a computer gives me a feeling of accomplishment 4.0000 Four factors can be extracted from the above statements related to aspects that students found motivating while using a computer for writing and communication. They are communication [15, 12, 7], learning [16, 20, 11], achievement [17, 24] and empowerment [28, 19]. Students favor using the computer bearing these concerns in their minds. Research Question 2: What differences exist among these motivating aspects for students of different background? 46