Journal of International Education and Leadership Volume 5 Issue 1 Spring 2015 http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252 Ottoman-American Relations, Francis Hopkins Smith and Armenian Issue Berrin Akalin Abant Izzet Baysal University The Ottoman-American relations, started upon arrival of American merchant ships to Izmir port in 1797, gained a new dimension by signing a treaty of commerce between two states in 1830 and David Porter was assigned as an acting ambassador and moved from Algeria to Istanbul in 1831. Ottoman state gave the privileged country status to America through this treaty and vested the right to it to take advantages of all privileges. Thus, Americans came into contact with Armenians; started to give the citizenship right to them as well as taking them under its protection. The concept, “foreigner” in Ottoman, was not the persons who were foreigner to the society, but were the guests or escrowed persons. Foreigners visited the Ottoman State either as tourists or for the purposes of business or performing a mission. There were many foreigners, especially in the port cities and the state was charged to provide their security of lives and properties. In this aspect, the foreigners were never tried wherever they were in the Ottoman State and were not disrespected. The legal status of foreigners was determined by the state with the special treaties, and the “Law of foreigners” became a current issue with capitulations in Ottomans for the first time and as a result of this, the financial, administrative and economic privileges granted had become basis for regulations related to the foreigners for a long time. Accordingly, the first informal contacts of America, having the privileged country status in Ottoman territory, began with missionary activities. The first arrival date of American Evangelical missioners to the Ottoman Empire was 1820. This date is also related to the development of missionary movement in America. The Evangelists in the United States of America were organized under American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, briefly known as ABCFM in order to spread this sect after Evangelist movement, defined as “the Great Awakening” by early 19th century. Board decided to start a missionary movement toward Armenians in the Ottoman Armenians in 1829 and this task was assigned to William Goodell in 1831. Since an official treaty was not concluded between the Ottoman Empire and American Government until 1830, those missioners were charged in the security of British Consulate. Francis Hopkinson Smith, who was born in 1838, American Baltimore Maryland as the sixth generation grandson of a wealthy family in London, was the author, painter, businessman and engineer. The author, who was an incorrigible traveler at the same time, came to Istanbul where first, he loved by imagining it, then fell in love upon knowing it with a special permission between 1895 and 1897 in order to paint. The tension between Ottoman ruling and Armenians during the years, when Hopkinson Smith was in the country where he caught the opportunity to closely observe the political conditions of Empire and current tensions experienced, had reached to a serious dimensions. The artist, who was on the Ottoman side contrary to the protective attitude and supportive political tendency of his country against Armenians, published many assays related to the Ottoman’s rightfulness in the American newspapers. In this article, it will be told how the Ottoman-American relations developed from the informal missionary activities, effects of such activities on Armenians and the views of Francis Hopkinson Smith related to Armenian issues via his assays published in the American newspapers during the years when the issues emerged. Key Words: Ottoman-American Relations, Istanbul, Armenian Issue, Francis Hopkinson Smith, Missionary Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 2 Introduction agreement and the ship materials under the In regards to the 100th Anniversary of leadership of George Washington’s frigate to the Armenian deportation, it is inferred that Algeria in 1800. Admiral Bainbridge had to the beginning of this issue which concerns bring some gifts and the Algerian Turkey lies within the Ottoman-American ambassador on behalf of the Protector of relations and that it is generated by the Algeria to the Sultan in Istanbul. Under the missionary activities. In this aspect, the normal conditions, the military navy ship article accentuates on the activities carried needed the royal decree in order to pass out in the Ottoman territories by the people through the Bosporus. However, Bainbridge and organizations who belong in one of the succeeded to come into the port in safe sects of Christianity, Evangelism, as the opening the greeting fire before the shocked cause of the Armenian issue and the issue is eyed of many foreign ambassadors in evaluated within the framework of official Istanbul (Özmen, 2007:196). and unofficial Ottoman-American relations. Yusuf Karamanlı, the Pasha of Tripoli Moreover the abovementioned inference is and Captain Richard O’Brien, the captive in reinforced in the article by introducing Algeria in the past, concluded an agreement Francis Hopkins Smith who was a witness to determining the American-Tripoli relations the incidents that took place during the in favor of America in 1796. According to period when the Armenian tension had this agreement, America would not pay any reached a serious stage and by determining annual tax to Tripoli; the tax was determined his writings related to the Armenian Issue as $57.000 with the gifts ad-hoc. In this and Turks published in the American agreement, Algeria acted as the mediator newspapers. between the parties using its military superiority. Meanwhile, Tripoli improved its Ottoman-American Relations navy and became prominent as a military power with Algeria in the region. Since the The first contact of America with the supplies and money, promised to Tripoli, Ottoman State was in the north of Africa could not be delivered to the Pasha on time, continent where it was in contact indirectly. the tensions occurred again, and America Accordingly, the first contact in had to conclude a new agreement this time Mediterranean was due to the pirates. with Hamuda Pasha, the Tunisian Governor, America, signing an agreement with Hasan upon pressure from Algeria in 1797. Pasha, the Protector of Algeria, on Accordingly, America had to deliver to September 5th, 1795 in order to make the Hamuda Pasha the military supplies and American merchant ships navigate in safe in frigate worth $180.000 of value. Mediterranean, accepted to pay $600.000 The task was completed thirteen years ransom to Hasan Pasha and to recognize two after the American Congress charged States mutually as the “most-favored Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and nations”. Pursuant to the agreement, Thomas Jefferson to negotiate on peace American ships had to raise the Ottoman agreement with Barbary forces; financially, flag in order to navigate in Mediterranean. it cost $1.25 million. But, it appeared that However, when the said ransom was not America was not able to pay such amount in paid to Hasan Pasha, he made a threat of war a period when France captured more than until the agreement conditions were met three hundred American ships. Then, Yusuf (Özmen, 2007:199). Edward Daniel Clarke, Pasha, the Pasha of Tripoli, declared war the British mineralogist and traveler, told against America on May 14th, 1801, as the what he saw during the first visit of an requested tax was not paid. America was, for American ship to Istanbul in his book, the first time, ready for war in its history of “Travels in Various Countries of Europe, relations with Barbary countries (Özmen, Asia and Africa”1 published in 1817. 2007:200-201). American Congress Admiral William Bainbridge was charged to accepted to send a permanent fleet to deliver the ransom stipulated in 1795 Mediterranean and the war declaration in 1802. The plan of William Eaton, the first 1 E. D. Clarke, Travels in Various Countries of Europe, consulate in Tunisia, related to this war was Asia and Africa, London 1817 Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 3 to keep Yusuf Karamanlı out benefiting Thomas Jefferson assigned an American from Hamit Karamanlı, his brother in exile. Consul to Izmir considering the continuing The President Thomas Jefferson, who trade between two countries in 1802, but advocated war in the relation with the Ottoman Government did not feel the need Barbary countries since the very beginning, to recognize this consul.3 As long as those approved William Eaton’s plan. two states did not recognize each other, Accordingly, Hamit would fight on behalf of America had either to pay six percent America with his mercenaries; American customs duty instead of two percent or to fleet would support him from the sea and trade in the care of Levant Company of UK thus, as Hamit would take control in Tripoli and to pay almost the same difference to UK enabling American ships to trade in safe in as the consulate tax.4 Contrary to America, Mediterranean. Derna, besieged both from Ottoman Empire did not need such land and sea was taken under the control of agreement. In spite of this, the trade volume America on April 29th, Derna Fortress was between two states continued to grow until laid siege and the American flag was raised the agreement was signed. Especially, since in the fortress (Bostanoğlu, 2007:220). many American groups provided support via However, meanwhile America desired to ships to Greece without state support during take the Tripoli Port under its control, the independence fight of Greeks, Bâbıâli Philadelphia frigate was captured by Yusuf acted with suspicion toward America and Karamanlı Pasha. As a result of those therefore, Ottoman did not want to conclude events, Yusuf Karamanlı offered peace. an agreement with America. However, when Hence, even if America could not win a almost entire Ottoman navy was burnt down military victory throughout Tripoli, it by the British-French-Russian navies in guaranteed the trade’s safety in Navarino, in 1827, seeking of Ottoman a Mediterranean through the agreement which new alliance simplified the America’s work it made the best under these circumstances. (Özmen, 2007:207). After Hamit Karamanlı maintained his life The important result of the first war of with the support from American government America in Mediterranean was in America for a while, he was sent back transformation of its commercial relations pursuant to the agreement with Yusuf with Ottoman into an official form via Karamanlı; as he was living with his family diplomatic ways. Among the partners of in Tripoli, he escaped to Egypt upon company that was incorporated by the occurring of conflicts (Özmen, 2007:202). American businessmen, David Offley and The first war of America against the Woodman in Izmir, 1811, Offley was terror in its history was the war against assigned the first US Consul in 1824, and Algeria, the Ottoman Province during 1801- during that period, America spent more 1805, and this was the first “conflict effort to develop the relations rather than between the civilizations”, the new conflict Ottoman; because Ottoman did not have any of crescent and cross (Bostanoğlu, commercial expectation from the other side 2007:219-220).2 The persons, whom the of Atlantic, and was suspicious toward Northern African provinces such as Tripoli, America. However, Ottoman, lost many Algeria, Tunisia were entrusted to, were ships in Navaro, which caused him to seek called the “Protector-Dey” and the foreign aid in order to rebuild its navy and governorship was assigned upon declaration concluded the “Seyr ü Sefâin ve İcrâ-i of dependency to Bâbıâli. America, Ticâret Antlaşması” (Navigation and concluding an agreement with Ömer Pasha, Trading Treaty) with America in 1830. A the Protector of Algeria in 1815, would both confidential supplement provision of the increase its trade in Mediterranean and focus treaty stipulates that America would build on establishing its power in Caribbean and the battleships for Ottoman. When it was South America regions through the income obtained from Mediterranean in its sphere 3 David H. Finnie, Pioneers East: The Early American from that period (Bostanoğlu, 2007:220). Experience in the Middle East, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1967), p.25. 4 Nurdan Şafak, Osmanlı- Amerikan İlişkileri [Ottoman- 2 Frank Lambert, The Barbary Wars: American American Relations], Osmanlı Araştırmaları Vakfı, Independence in The Atlantic World, (2005) Istanbul 2003, p.98. Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 4 understood that the Senate would not accept Eckford7 managed the building of American- it, the provision was omitted from the origin battleships, and FosterRhodes built Turkish text, but kept in the English the first steamboat in Istanbul. By that version.5 This “Confidential Provision” period, the rifle was purchased from the US includes that if Ottoman required, America for the Ottoman army and the surplus of would start to build the ships in the required rifles from the American Civil War were size in the American dockyard using the used to enhance the military measures which American timbers purchased at the cost price Ottoman Empire, began to disintegrate, and the ships would be delivered to Ottoman assumed as a unique solution8 (Bostanoğlu, after the contract was signed. Ottoman 2007:221). aimed to rebuild its navy by the virtue of this The political interest of America started provision. Following the American Senate’s and developed depending on the economic disapproval, in 1831, Andrew Jackson sent attraction centers in Ottoman; in this regard, David Porter from Algeria to Istanbul as the Mediterranean had a leading role. In 1862, diplomatic agent to deliver a letter, notifying America reinforced its status of “Most that the confidential provision was not Favored Nation” by concluding a new approved because the treaty would be “Navigation and Trading Treaty”. The first imperiled due to the confidential provision initiation of Turkey to open to the foreign that the senate did not approve, and turning capital from America occurred during the from this point, where it was reached as a last days of Ottoman Empire; it was result of tiresome efforts, meant that such discussed again after Republic. This opportunity could not be caught again.6 initiation, also called “Chester Project”, David Porter, assigned as the diplomatic proposed the building of railway network in agent, had become the ambassador in 1839 Eastern Anatolia. Colonel Colby M. Chester and counter-embassy could just be is the commander of ship which visits established in 1867 (Bostanoğlu, 2007:221). Istanbul in 1900. The rich business The US Government, guaranteed to opportunities in the Ottoman territories Sultan Mahmut II who stated his attracted his attention and he proposed the dissatisfaction against disapproval of this project due to insufficient transport network. confidential provision that David Porter İttihat ve Terakki (Solidarity and would provide all aids and support on the Progression) was interested in the project matters of buying and building of battleship. just after 1908 in order to hold the This commitment was fulfilled, and first, administration in its hand. Chester submitted Henry Eckford and then, Foreman Foster his proposal to Meclis-i Mebusan (Chamber Rhodes continued to build the battleships for of Deputies), assumed to build the railway Ottoman navy until 1840. Bâbıâlî requested and incorporated a company, called from America to charge the American officers in Ottoman navy in 1836, but American Government stated that only the 7 In the articless of Özmen and Bostanoğlu, the name retired officers could be charged (Özmen, of the person who managed the building of battleships for Ottoman are mentioned differently; as 2007:208). Since 1850, the officers from Özmen mentions the name of the person as “William Imperial School of Naval Engineering Eckford”, whereas Bostanoğlu mentions “Henry visited USA in order to learn the ship Eckworth” for the same person. However, according building; in this context, America had great to the source, contributions to the Turkish naval. Henry “famousamerican.nethttp://famousamericans.net/he nryeckford/ ”, William and Henry Eckford were brothers and since it was stated that the most famous ship engineer in USA during 19th century was Henry 5 Omission of confidential provision from the Turkish Eckford, the person, who managed the building of text and keeping it in the English version is the battleships for Ottoman, was Henry Eckford; died in indicator of America’s “isolationist” policy, and Istanbul on 12 November 1832. existence of the USA’s desire of transforming it into 8 Ercüment Kuran, “19. Yüzyılda Osmanlı Türklerinin the world policy, where applicable from the beginning Amerika’yı Tanıması [Recognition of America by (Bostanoğlu, 2007:221). Ottoman Turks during 19th Century], 500. Yılında 6 Çağrı Erhan, Türk Amerikan İlişkilerinin Tarihsel Amerika, (Der.) [America in its 500th Year (Journal)] Kökenleri [Historical Origins of Turkish American Recep Ertürk, Hayati Tüfekçioğlu, Bağlam Yayınları, Relations], İmge Kitabevi, Ankara, 2001, p.129. İstanbul 1994, p.39. Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 5 “Ottoman-American Development cities and the state was charged to provide Company” (OADC). The project to be built their security of lives and properties. In this by adding it to the existing line would go aspect, the foreigners were never tried from Sivas to Black Sea, to Suleymaniyah wherever they were in the Ottoman Empire via Harput, Ergani, Mosul and Kirkuk, to and were not disrespected. The legal status Van and Halep, and to Mediterranean. The of foreigners was determined by the state possibility of which USA might intervene in with the special treaties, and the “Law of the oil in Mosul and Kirkuk displeased UK foreigners” became a current issue with and France. Even though Chester capitulations in Ottomans for the first time reestablished the company after the First and as a result of this, the financial, World War, when the disputes occurred administrative and economic privileges between the partners, the company could not granted had become basis for regulations finance the project and Turkey cancelled the related to the foreigners for a long time project at the end of 1923 (Ertuğrul, 1998:26). Accordingly, the first (Bostanoğlu,2007:223). informal contacts of America, having the America that declared war to Germany, privileged country status in Ottoman did not declare the same to Ottoman Empire territory, began with missionary activities. during the First World War; but Ottoman The first arrival date of American Empire cut off its all diplomatic relations Evangelical missioners to the Ottoman with America upon pressure from Berlin in Empire was 1819-1820. This date is also 1917; as doing it, it apologized and did not related to the development of missionary intervene in the American schools and movement in America. The Evangelists in mission in its territory. The political the United States of America were organized relations between America and Turkey were under American Board of Commissioners intensively brought to the agenda after the for Foreign Missions, briefly known as First World War; even some intellectuals ABCFM in order to spread this sect after the such as Halide Edip Adıvar considered the Evangelist movement, defined as “the Great American mandate as the salvation of the Awakening” in 1810 by the early 19th country pursuant to the Article 229 of century. League of Nations. During the Sivas The American Priest George W. Congress, the “mandate” idea was Dunmore, who visited Ottoman in order to completely refused (Bostanoğlu, 2007:223). carry out a preliminary examination to As stated above, the American-Ottoman spread the Evangelism, stated that Harput relations, started with American merchant Plain was the most convenient place in the ships visiting Izmir port in 1797, had gained Ottoman territory with regard to the a new dimension after concluding a trade missionary activities in his report to the agreement between two states in 1830 by center in Boston; and the Board decided to which Ottoman Empire gave the privileged take Ottoman territories into its program country status to America and granted it the according to Dunmore’s report in 1819. right to benefit from all privileges. Thus, (Ertuğrul, 1998:163-64). Sixty missioners Americans took contact with Armenians; were charged in Middle East during 1819-24 and conferred the citizenship to them as well and American Evangelist youths were as taking them under their protection. encouraged for this task. Meanwhile, it was (Ertuğrul, 1998:161). thought-provoking that those dates coincided The concept, “foreigner” in Ottoman, with the Greek uprising in Mora, 1821 was not the persons who were foreigner to (Yorulmaz, 2010:174). In 1829, the Board the society, but were the guests or escrowed decided to start a missionary activity toward persons. Foreigners visited the Ottoman Armenians in the Ottoman Empire and State either as tourists or for the purposes of William Goodell was charged with this task business or performing a mission. There in 1831. Since any official treaty was not were many foreigners, especially in the port concluded between the Ottoman Empire and American Government until 1830, those 9 The mandate is defined as a “holy civilization task” which would bring the nations that fail to manage themselves to the self-determination position. Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 6 missionaries were charged in the security of situation of the country during that period, British Consulate10 (Özmen, 2007:206). and even giving13 the “nation” status to The primary aim of this Board was to Evangelists in 1850. It was found that the manage the American missionaries in order number of Evangelist Armenian, 15.000, at to spread the Evangelism in the world that time, reached to 20.051 as the registered starting with the Native Americans and Evangelists during 1870’s (Yorulmaz, moving towards USA and then to the 2010:174). Ottoman Empire, entered into a continent. It was essential that the period of fast regression, was faced with the missionaries must have developed the independence uprisings of various nations communication with the local people by against the state. Government needed to establishing charity institutions, education prevent such uprisings in order to protect its and health centers, have enabled them to integrity, and promised to the non-Muslims, read the Bible by teaching the language and called minority assurances, rights and have introduced the Evangelist doctrines in reforms. Ottoman Armenians sought the the far countries where they were charged. assistance of European countries in order to Evangelist-origin “American Missionary get such reforms implemented, and Board” preferred to spread its belief by especially, they trusted Russia. The establishing schools, instead of churches in management, which refrained from Russia the Middle East. Levy Parsons and Plinky getting close to Ottoman Empire with the Fisk were the first American missionaries imperialist intentions, preferred to trust who visited Ottoman Empire for this America which it believed that it was away purpose. Since the Ottoman American from the similar intentions and was impartial relations was the minute amount during the compared with the European countries, and period when these two missionaries arrived welcomed the contact of Americans with to Izmir, the knowledge of pioneers related Armenians. On the other hand, Armenians to Ottoman Empire was only that they were under the pressure of Gregorian Church in an Islamic country having a cosmopolite rapidly accepted the soft and simple nature. Their desire was to make the Evangelism offered by the American Muslims and Jews became Evangelist in that missionaries that approached to them with country. However, they learnt in a short time their mother tongue and in a humanist that the huge religious toleration, which they manner (Akgün,1988:2,3). heard about the empire management, was Within this communication, American not valid for the Muslims, and that the missionaries continued to get closer to the Islamic person might be punished with people first developing education, then death, if he/she tergiversated11. They also health services. In a short time, they spread found that Jews did not have any sectarian their activities to the farthest corners of problem, were not tending to tergiversate. Empire. During the course of time, they So, they ended their limited activities on were organized in the Eastern, Central and Jews in 185612. In order to avoid damaging Western Turkey, then in the task regions their relations with Jews and Ottoman defined as Syrian Mission. In such management, leaving aside the Muslims, organizations, they introduced themselves to they turned towards Armenians, the nation and were adopted by the people using the that accepted the Christianity first and known methods of missionary. They Nasturi, the Catholic Arabs. presented very modern lives incomparable Recently after arrival of two with of Anatolian people and became missionaries to Izmir, the American incentive. In particular, they focused on the missionary activities grew fast due to trade Eastern and Southeastern Anatolian regions treaty, as we mentioned above, between where the government could not reach and America and Empire in 1830, the political no service could be provided due to the various impossibilities. They gathered the 10 Çağrı Erhan, Turkish-American Relations: past, children together in the nurseries, schools present, future, London 2004, p.12. and kindergartens that they established, and 11 Ziya Enver Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi, [Ottoman History], Cilt VII, Ank. 1958, p. 6. 12 Frank A.Stone, Academies for Anatolia, Boston 13 Enver Ziya Karal,Osmanlı Tarihi [Ottoman History], 1984, , p. 45. Cilt: VIII, Ank. 1958, p. 128. Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 7 had effect on the children, thus on their obstructions. Even they were accepted parents and families (Akgün, 1988:3). before the Sultan. One of the missionaries, Ottomans were not yet very familiar Cyrus Hamlin, who attracted the attention to with America. However, even though the this subject and was the founder of Robert missionaries directed their school and College, wrote that he was accepted by church activities towards Armenians, it was Sultan Abdulmecit and the Sultan wished natural that the Turks, who lived in same him success, when he first arrived to manner as and together with Armenians, Istanbul14(Akgün, 1988:5). were affected from changes that they The missionaries increased their observed from their Armenian neighbors. In activities benefiting from the expansion of addition, since there were many women the political and legal rights granted through among the missionaries, it facilitated them to 1839 the Imperial Edict of Gülhane and mingle with the Turkish women as well as 1856 the Royal Edict of Reform. Various with the Armenian women. Even if the religious organizations started intensively to American-style life drew reaction from the visit the Ottoman territories in order both to Turkish people that were not used to it spread their religion and to use the beforehand, the health services provided by Christians in Ottoman against the state. the missionaries to Armenians and Turks The missionaries, who were closely in without discrimination affected the Turkish relation with policy and even worked under people soon. Missionaries were making their the order of policy during that period, propagandas visiting the homes, and showed the remarkable achievements sermonizing in the church and coffee houses. through the supports by the countries where However, the schools and health centers they came from. They spread their activity were more efficient to communicate with areas towards the farthest corner of country and penetrate into the Turks. It was not such as village, town, and began to obtain common application to admit the Turkish the results of their works. children to these schools. But as much as the Because of this, it is clearly seen the number of schools increased, the admittance effect of such activities by the missionaries was increasing minimally and those, who on which the minorities became the were educated in such schools, opened one independent countries each through the window of schools to their homes, families support of Western countries as a result of and relatives (Akgün, 1988:4-6). Based on uprisings during the period when Ottoman these common relations, the American was becoming weak. missionaries and Turkish people met directly Likewise, the missionary activities had and indirectly. the major impact on independence of Greece Missionaries developed their indirect in 1829, Bulgarian in 1908 and Arabian relations with Turks in order to obtain the territories after the First World War from permissions on the matters such as Ottoman. More importantly the education continuing their activities, traveling in provided in the foreign colleges established Anatolia, publishing the religious books or by the missionaries had quite an effect on course books to be used in the schools, the lack of a common idea or ideal among establishing the printing house for this the intellectuals in our country15 (Sezer, purpose, renting the house-school buildings, 2011:2 even purchasing them, establishing and <http://www.ait.hacettepe.edu.tr/akademik/a developing the educational institutions, and rsiv/misy.htm>). to solve the disputes arising from such There was a religious aspect in matters. Even though the Ottoman officials spreading the schools by American were the officials of an Islamic state, and the missionaries who preferred to spread their missionaries were the persons who tried to belief through opening schools in Middle take place in order to spread the Evangelism in this Islamic country, as almost all missionaries confessed, they were welcomed 14, CyrusHamlin, America’s Duty to Americans in with tolerance and kindness in all their Turkey, The North American Review, No. 478, Eylül 1896, p. 278. applications. Again, according to what they 15Yusuf Akçuraoğlu, “Emel (İDEAL) [Aim (IDEAL)]”, told, they did not face with any political Türk Yurdu, sayı:16, 14 Haziran 1328, p.489-490. Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 8 East, instead of churches, because their aim The number of schools significantly was to spread the Evangelism and make increased as a result of missionary activities Armenians become Evangelist; thus, they accelerated from the second half of 19th established an Armenian society that had the century, and the American missionaries, financial and religious connections with who worked especially in the regions where USA in the Ottoman territories. Firstly, the mostly Jewish and non-Muslim minorities core of American University was created in lived, divided the Ottoman territories into Beirut in 1824. Then, they enhanced their four mission regions in order to achieve their activities on opening schools in various objectives. Those were the Europe, Western, Anatolian cities and the provinces such as Eastern and Central Turkish Missions. Istanbul, Izmir. From 1870, they continued The European Turkish Mission covered to open schools in the regions, especially Filipe, Thessaloniki and Bitola, and worked where mostly the Christian minorities lived to increase the awareness of Bulgarians. The in Anatolia. Most of American schools, Western Turkish Mission covered Istanbul, established through American missionaries, Izmit, Bursa, Merzifon, Kayseri and were the primary schools teaching read-write Trabzon, and the Eastern Turkish Mission and four operations. However, the status of covered the entire Eastern Anatolia up to the secondary school sections of those schools Russian and Iranian borders as well as and the colleges was different. The managers Harput, Erzurum, Van, Mardin and Bitlis. of them were not ordinary missionaries, but The Central Turkish Mission covered the the qualified persons, sent from USA. The region from the south of Toros Mountains to course books were in English. In some the Fırat river valley (especially, Maraş and cases, their costs were met by the missionary Antep provinces were important). The works institutions which USA was supporting16 of the last three missions on Armenians (Ertuğrul, 1998:161). attracted the attention.18 The thing which was requested from the As a result of the extremely organized American missionaries, who were working and planned activity, they both spread their under the protection of British foreign affairs sect and helped the implementation of until 1880’s, was intelligence by mingling in imperialist policies of their countries by the people in the territory where they were affecting the minorities such as Bulgarian, sent to. In particular, it was to determine the Greek, etc. notably Armenians and religious belief of people, to obtain separating them from Ottoman. information about the religious functionaries The most important Evangelist colleges (their numbers, knowledge levels, education were opened in the centers like Istanbul and levels, etc.), to determine the academic Beirut. It is known that among them, Robert situation in the country and to learn the College, opened in Istanbul in 1863, played mood of people. After they were obtained, it an important role to educate the staff would be determined what kind of work providing the independency of Bulgaria. would be carried out. The other thing Likewise, most of the graduates of this requested from them, was to do everything College, which its founders, managers and necessary “… to retrieve these holy and many lecturers consisted of missionaries, promised territories through a weaponless between 1863 and 1903, were Bulgarian crusade”17. The missionaries, started to work students. Again, five of the first Bulgarian for this purpose, carried out miscellaneous graduates of the College were the prime Evangelization activities through their primary, secondary and high schools, printing houses, hospitals and charity 18 Bilal Şimşir, “Ermeni Propagandasının Amerika Boyutu Üzerine [About American Dimension of institutions as well as the missions. Armenian Propaganda]”, Tarih Boyunca Türklerin Ermeni Toplumu ile İlişkileri, Ankara 1985, p.92-93; Uygur Kocabaşoğlu, “Doğu Sorunu Çerçevesinde Amerikan Misyoner Faaliyetleri [American Missionary 16 F. Anrews Stone, Academies For Anatolia, The Activities based on the Eastern Issue]”, Tarihi University of Connecticut, 1984, p.4-5. Gelişmeler İçinde Türkiye’nin Sorunları Sempozyumu, 17Uygur Kocabaşoğlu, Kendi Belgeleriyle Anadolu’daki Ankara, 1992, p.68, 92-93; George E.White, Amerika [America in Anatolia in American Adventuring With Anatolia College, First Edition 1940, Documents], Ankara, 1989, p.30-33. Grinnel, Iowa, p.11. Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 9 ministers of Bulgaria and at least one Turkey Colleges” both for girls and boys in graduate from Robert College took part in Antep and Maraş, and St Paul Institute in the Bulgarian cabinets before the First Tarsus were initially educating the children World War. Teaching almost fifteen of Christian minorities, increasing their different languages notably Bulgarian and awareness on national feelings and as a Armenian as well as western languages such result, made them upraised against Ottoman as English, German and French in the State. The missionaries, who educated the College, which applied an intensive minorities in this manner internally, worked curriculum, is important in regards to to influence the western world in order to showing the versatile aims of College.19 make them act against Ottoman Government Ten missionaries, twelve American by propagandas such as, “Turks cut the missionary assistants and 81 local persons Christian people off!” using the suppression were charged in the European Turkish of uprisings that occurred through their own Mission working for Bulgarians in 1899. provocation in order to turn the American The number of Evangelist Churches in the and European public opinion against Turkey region reached to fifteen. During 1870-80’s, externally. The well-educated Armenians half of works that were printed in the were brought to USA and after many of printing houses established by missionaries them acquired the American citizenship, in Istanbul were in Bulgarian and this is the they turned back to Ottoman territories and indicator of significance of works on this requested the reforms in favor of them by issue. making independency propaganda.20 Except “American Board”, “Methodist For example, after the American Episcopol Mission”, another American Evangelist Doctor, Meyton, educated some Missionary organization that worked to girls from Syrian Nusayrî in the school in Evangelize the Bulgarians, also established Mersin, he brought them to America; and the “Mission” center in Bulgaria, 1858. after those girls were educated very well on It is known that the Evangelist College Evangelism there, they came back and were in Beirut was also performing the same task charged in Adana and surroundings and as Robert College undertook for Bulgarians indoctrinated those in their own societies. established by the American missionaries in Some Evangelist priests and nuns purchased Istanbul by increasing the awareness of lands in Adana and surroundings, and made Arabs and provoking them against Ottoman. the initiations such as opening new schools Except those two Colleges, many which its political intentions were clearly American missionary colleges in Anatolia seen21 (Yorulmaz, 2010:174). carried out the similar activities mostly As clearly understood from the towards Armenians. Some of them are as information briefly given above, the follows: The first American missionary “American Board” organization assumes center in Anatolia was established in Harput, most of missionary activities in the Ottoman 1852. At the same place, “Armenian territories. Almost 30% of these activities College”, Ottoman called “Fırat College”, were carried out by the aforesaid opened in 1878, was intended to educate the organization. Evangelist priest and to educate Armenians about their language, history, literature and 20 Seçil Akgün, “Amerikalı Misyonerlerin Ermeni nationality. During the same period, the Meselesindeki Rolü [Role of American Missionaries on colleges such as “Anatolia College” in Armenian Issue]”, Atatürk Yolu, Mayıs 1988, yıl:1, Merzifon, “International College in Izmir sayı:1, p.9-10. It is estimated that more than 60 thousand Armenians immigrated to USA until 1914. and the American College for girls, “Central Ercüment Kuran, “ABD’de Türk Aleyhtarı Ermeni Propagandası [Armenian Propaganda Against Turks in 19Keith Maurice Greenwood, Robert College: The USA]”, Uluslararası Terörizm ve Gençlik Sempozyumu American Founders, The Johns Hopkins University, Ph Bildirileri, Sivas 1985’ten ayrı basım, p.55-56. 21 D 1965, p.10l-104; Who is Who RC-ACG Alumni Atilla Çetin, “Maârif Nazırı Ahmet Zühdü Paşa’nın Community, RC-ACG Mezunlar Topluluğunda Kim Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’ndaki Yabancı Okullar Kimdir?; İstanbul 1985, p.21; Seçil Akgün, “Amerikalı Hakkındaki Raporu [Report of Ahmet Zühdü Pasha, Misyonerlerin Ermeni Meselesindeki Rolü [Role of the Minister of Education on Foreign Schools in the American Missionaries in Armenian Issue]”, Atatürk Ottoman Empire]”, Güneydoğu Avrupa Araştırmaları Yolu, Mayıs 1988, yıl:1, sayı:1, p.1-13. Dergisi, Sayı:10-11, 1981-82, p.201. Ottoman-American Relationships Akalin 10 Hence, as a result of such intensive and Armenian society was promoted from effective works of the “American Board” second class human-being which they were and other organizations, the missionaries suffered during the centuries to the first class played the mediator role for USA to create human-being under the Turkish ruling, after the economic, social and cultural lives in the Anatolia was made by Alparslan, the Seljuk Middle East from 1880s. The Evangelist Sultan a Turkish land through Malazgirt War missionaries, who initially worked towards in 107124. Armenians and Bulgarians, were also, then, Seljuk Turks conquered Anatolia from affective on Greeks, Christian Arabs, Byzantium Empire, not Armenians by the Nasturi, Assyrians, Kurds and Jews. end of 11th Century and made it a Turkish In particular, they played a role on land. The modern Armenian sources; uprisings of Kurds and Nasturi through their Matheos from Urfa, Aristakes, Sebeos and works carried out in the Eastern and Assyrian Mihael, welcomed Turks’ victory Southeastern Anatolia regions. Since the 17th against Byzantium and making Anatolia a century, the French and Italian Catholics, Turkish land with a great satisfaction, visiting the region, had also big contribution because throughout the history, the to this event.22 Byzantium and Iranians were the ones who Ottoman Government could not audit tyrannized over Armenians and Assyrians, those institutions because of the massacred them, forced them to immigrate, interventions from the Foreign States due to and banned their sect and churches. The the capitulations. Thus, as it was Armenian Author Matheos confessed, emphasizing the enmity towards Islam and “Melikşah, the most lawful, intelligent and Turks in the aforesaid institutions on one powerful of all the human beings, was as if hand, the Turkish language was taught he was a father to all people. All Greeks and insufficiently on the other. Furthermore, Armenians went under the ruling of him in insufficiency of public educational their free will”. Assyrian Mihael, from one institutions in some regions led to increasing of the modern sources, writes the following; of interest in the missionary schools. As “Turks don’t intervene in the belief and almost 20.000 students were educated only religion of anybody unlike malicious and in more than 400 American schools in tyrant Greeks, and don’t implement any 1900’s, the number of Ottoman high school pressure and oppression” (Bahadır and college during the same period, was 69 Tunçay,meb.gov.tr and had almost 7000 students. Again, during <HTTP://MEBK12.MEB.GOV.TR/MEB_İ the same period, the total number of foreign YS_DOSYALAR/43/10/354365/DOSYAL schools owned by missionaries in the AR/2013_04/19123334_1915ERMENTEHC Ottoman territories was about 2.000. If the R.DOCX> ) minorities’ schools were added to them, the Armenians gained more rights upon number approached to 10.000 (Sezer, conquering of Istanbul by Sultan Mehmet, 2011:1-25). the Conqueror. Even, the Conqueror brought Armenians had the minority status in the Armenians who lived with their families in Ottoman Empire; according to the Bursa to Istanbul in 1461 and permitted the Ottoman’s view, even if the “minority” had establishment of Armenian Patriarchy in the minority identity and name, it meant the Istanbul announcing the Bursa Metropolitan societies that their lives and rights were not Bishop Ovakim as the patriarch. Then, the more different than Muslim people.23 Most Assyrian, Coptic and Abyssinian churches of the minorities based on the “nationality” were also attached to the Armenian during the Ottoman period consisted of Patriarchy25. Thus, Armenians established Greeks, Armenians and Jews (Ertuğrul, their churches and schools under the ruling 1998:25). of Ottoman, and revitalized their cultures 24Solmaz Aydın, Ermeni Meselesi [The Armenian 22National Archives of the United States, M.C, Issue], Büyük Matbaa, İstanbul, 1979, p.76. 1107/20, Report on the Assyrian Chiristians by David 25 Yavuz Ercan, Türkiye’de 15. Ve 16. Yüzyılda Gayr-ı Magie, report, dated August 24, 1918. Müslimlerin Hukuki ve İçtimai Durumu [Non-Muslim’s 23 Yılmaz Öztuna, Büyük Türkiye Tarihi [The Great Legal and Social Status in Turkey in the 15th and 16th History of Turkey], Cilt:10, İstanbul, 1983, p.266. Centuries], TTK Basımevi, Ankara, 1983, p.1134.