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ERIC EJ1125647: Post-Graduation Plans of International Science and Engineering Doctoral Students Attending U.S. Universities PDF

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Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 Peer-Reviewed Article ISSN: 2162-3104 Print/ ISSN: 2166-3750 Online Volume 7 Number 1 (2017), pp. 1-21 © Journal of International Students http://jistudents.org/ Post-Graduation Plans of International Science and Engineering Doctoral Students Attending U.S. Universities Dorothy N. Ugwu Tarrant County Community College District, USA Maria Adamuti-Trache University of Texas Arlington, USA ABSTRACT This study examines the post-graduation plans of international science and engineering doctoral students at a public research-intensive university, and the extent to which graduate school experiences influence post-graduation plans. The study is grounded in Tinto’s Integration Model as well as Berry’s Acculturation Model. Study findings highlight the variety of challenges international doctoral students go through such as adapting to a new culture, experiencing English language difficulties, and cultural, social, and academic adjustment barriers. Using survey data collected in 2013-2014, this study reveals the complexity of factors that affect post-graduation plans and need for institutional initiatives to provide socio-cultural and academic support, and recommends changes in immigration policies to sustain the retention of talented international scientists and engineers upon degree completion. Keywords: doctoral students; science and engineering; graduate school experiences; post-graduation plans T he Institute of International Education (IIE) reported that the number of international students in the United States increased by 8% in 2013/2014 compared to the previous year to a record high of 886,052 (IIE, 2014). According to several studies, in 2025 this number will rise to 8 million (Altbach & Bassett, 2004; Eustace, 2007; Fischer, 2009). Meanwhile, the - 1 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 number of international graduate students attending U.S. universities in 2014 reached 329,854 representing 37% of all international students in the country (IIE, 2014), and continued to increase through fall 2010, with all of the increase occurring in Science and Engineering (S&E) fields. For instance, about 60% of all international graduate students in the United States in 2010 were enrolled in S&E fields, while only 32% of all international students enrolled in undergraduate programs were in S&E fields (National Science Board, 2012). There is a clear trend to attract large numbers of international students for the graduate S&E programs in the United States. As more international doctoral students flow into American universities, a marked shift in the demographic composition of the doctoral student population in S&E has also been witnessed. Foreign students on temporary visas earned high proportions of S&E doctorates and dominated in fields like engineering, physics, computer science, and economics. In 2009, they received 57% of doctorates in engineering, 54% in computer science, and 51% in physics (National Science Board, 2012). These statistics have been extremely stable; in 2011, foreign students earned 56% of doctorates in engineering, 51% in computer science, and 44% in physics (National Science Board, 2014). As described in Allum’s (2014) report based on the annual Survey of Graduate Enrollment and Degrees, in the fall of 2013, 56.2% of all foreign graduate students were in engineering, mathematics and computer science, physical and earth sciences, or biological and agricultural sciences. Meanwhile, only 17.6% of U.S. citizen and permanent resident graduate students were enrolled in these fields. This trend has continued unabated showing that the United States receives a considerable number of international graduate students, who are preferentially enrolled in S&E programs. The flow of scientists and engineers to the developed countries is not surprising. The United States’ economic growth and its leading position in the global markets depend heavily on advancements in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Machi, McNeill, Lips, Marshall & Carafano, 2009; National Academy of Sciences, 2006). The growing demand for scientists and engineers is a worldwide phenomenon and many developed countries that cannot meet this increased demand locally, recruit international students and foreign-born highly educated workers who are likely to bring a significant contribution to the higher education system and workplaces. Despite the magnitude of the international S&E doctoral students population, the investment that U.S. higher education institutions make in preparing them, and the potential contributions that these individuals can make to the United States, S&E doctoral students’ graduate school experiences and the impact on their post- - 2 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 graduation plans have been understudied (Ren & Hagedorn, 2012; Mori, 2000). By gaining an understanding of these issues, American higher education institutions could proactively formulate appropriate policies and programs that would benefit international students and in long term would contribute to recruit, train, and retain talented specialists in science and engineering fields. This paper examines the relationship between post-graduation plans and the graduate school experiences of S&E doctoral students when controlling for demographic factors (age, sex), culture-specific characteristics (race/ethnicity as a proxy for region of origin), field of study, and English language proficiency. Tinto’s Integration Model (1993) and Berry’s Acculturation Model (1997) offer an appropriate theoretical framework to interpret the challenges faced by international doctoral students in S&E such as adapting to a new culture, experiencing English language difficulties, and adjusting to cultural, social, and academic barriers. The study addresses several research questions: 1. What are the graduate school experiences (i.e., academic, social, cultural) of doctoral students enrolled in S&E programs? Do these experiences vary by demographic factors, culture-specific factors, field of study and English language proficiency? 2. What are students’ post-graduation plans and how do they differ by demographic factors, culture-specific factors, and field of study? 3. What is the relationship between post-graduation plans and the graduate school experiences of S&E doctoral students when controlling for demographic factors, culture-specific factors, field of study and English language proficiency? LITERATURE REVIEW Social and Culture Adjustment Research indicates that multiple factors are associated with students’ graduate school experience. For international doctoral students, these factors include, but are not limited to age, sex, race/ethnicity, field of study, and English language skills (Duru, 2008; Lee, Park, & Kim, 2009; McClure, 2007; Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007; Poyrazli, Kavanaugh, Baker, & Al-Timimi, 2004). Olaniran (1996) reported that older international students who were less proficient in English appear to have more problems acquiring social skills. Yet another study indicated that younger international doctoral students were much more social and independent (Moffett, 2006). Poyrazli and Lopez (2007) discovered that while older foreign students reported a higher level of perceived discrimination, younger students reported a greater amount of homesickness. - 3 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 The literature also suggests significant gender differences in international students’ sojourn experiences (Fong & Peskin, 1969; Lee, et al., 2009). An early study found that female foreign students reported a greater number of adjustment problems compared with male foreign students (Fong & Peskin, 1969). Contrary to earlier gender research on international students, Ying and Han (2006) more recently found that females were more adaptable than males. Empirical studies have consistently demonstrated that international students from particular areas of the world have uniquely differing experiences in their adjustment to the United States. For example, students from regions such as Asia, Africa, and Latin America are more likely to face adjustment difficulties in the U.S. due to cultural dissimilarity, and more likely to report racism and discrimination (Yeh & Inose 2003). Trice (2004) also found that international students from African and Middle Eastern countries tended to interact less often with their American peers than those from other world regions. Many studies point out that language proficiency affects the academic performance of international students (Andrade, 2006; McClure, 2007; Mori, 2000; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Ying (2003) reported that students who had stronger English writing skills had higher academic achievement. Yet another study (Poyrazli, Arbona, Bullington & Pisecco, 2001) reported that graduate students with higher English proficiency experienced fewer academic adjustment problems. A review of previous literature indicates that international students frequently face challenges in adjusting socially to the university environment in the United States (Duru, 2008; Olivas & Li, 2006). Al- Sharideh and Goe (1998) added that social support is therefore important in ensuring that international students succeed in their new environment. Like other authors, McClure (2007) explained that foreign students often feel lonely in their new environment because they lack family, friends and social network. Further research emphasized that developing social networks that include American students helps international students make successful social adjustment (Lee, 2010). Other studies suggest that language deficiency affects the social adjustment of international students (Andrade, 2006; Kwon, 2009; Mori, 2000; Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Trice (2007) discovered that international students who reported English language difficulties also experienced poor social adjustment. She also found that students who had difficulties forming relationships with American students were more likely to feel isolated. Although her study used teachers’ rather than students’ perspectives, her findings were similar to other studies which showed that language proficiency was crucial to the social experience of international students. In addition, Sherry, Thomas, and Wing Hong (2009) - 4 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 revealed that students who socialized only with other foreign students tended to experience poorer social adjustment. In addition to demographic and culture-specific adjustment issues, international students go through a significant culture shock (Oberg, 1960). Since then the role of culture has long been studied in relation to acculturation problems. According to Cohen (1968), culture is one of the most important factors influencing the adaptation of individuals. Likewise, international students who come to the U.S. for higher education find themselves in a new cultural environment and experience the overwhelming task of organizing their life to meet the needs and requirements imposed upon them by the new society. When foreign students move to a new culture for a period of intensive education abroad, they are exposed to a new environment in which they must adapt in order to function effectively (Hechanova-Alampay, Beehr, Christiansen, & Van Horn, 2002). English language proficiency is certainly a first impediment as they may struggle understanding class lectures, completing class assignments, speaking in class or expressing their feelings, and making friends with their American classmates. Zhai (2002) adds that helping international students to successfully adjust to the U.S. culture and higher education system should not be overlooked. Many recognize that the culture shock symptoms add to the challenges experienced by international students coming to study in the United States (Baier, 2005; Poyrazli, Kavanaugh, Baker, & Al-Timimi, 2004; Yeh & Inose (2003). Post-Graduation Plans As stated previously, international students encounter some adjustment difficulties during their educational journeys in American universities. It may not be surprising to find that these students could also face difficulties when deciding on their future careers and place of residence (e.g., whether or not they should stay in the United States or go back to their countries after graduation). Despite the significant implications of the stay or leave decision for international graduate students, only a few studies have investigated post-graduation issues and the factors that may influence students’ decisions (Finn, 2005; Kim, Bankart, & Isdell, 2010; Shen & Herr, 2004). There have been however, discussions in the literature about the stay rate of international students after graduation from American universities. Many researchers found that the stay rate of foreign-born doctorates varied by country of origin (Finn, 2003) and by field of study (Finn, 2005). For instance, according to Finn (2003), students from Egypt, South Africa, and other African countries have higher stay rates than those from other countries. - 5 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 Although limited, other studies investigated the career plans of graduate international students. Shen and Herr (2004) investigated the career placement concerns and the needs of international graduate students leaving the U.S. or staying in the country after graduating. They found that although many international students wanted to stay in the U.S. after graduation for greater chances of career advancement, others expressed the intention to return to their country of origin because they recognized the needs for qualified people in the home country. On the other hand, Shen and Herr (2004), and Saravia and Miranda (2004) reported that about half of internationally-born graduate students studying in the U.S. stayed behind even upon completion of their doctoral degree programs. Contrary to Shen and Herr (2004), and Saravia and Miranda (2004), Finn’s (2014) study specifically focused on international doctorate students and not graduate students in general. Finn’s (2014) study looked at doctorate recipients since 1991 and revealed high stay rates of doctorate recipients. For instance, the 2011 stay rate for foreign doctorate recipients, including both permanent and temporary visas at graduation, was 68% for those graduating in 2006, and 65% for those graduating in 2001. When only temporary resident visas were included, the stay rates dropped to 66% for those graduating in 2006, and 62% for those graduating in 2001, but were still high. Stay rates depend on discipline and country of citizenship. Finn (2014) concluded that doctorate recipients from disciplines such as economics, agricultural sciences, and social sciences have significantly lower stay rates than those in S&E fields. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Tinto’s (1993) Student Integration Model (SIM) and Berry’s (1997) acculturation model serve as the theoretical framework for this study. Given the absence of a comprehensive theory to describe the international doctoral students’ experiences and post-graduation plans, using existing undergraduate models of student integration and acculturation as a starting point to frame this study proved to be useful. This study expands the work of Tinto’s SIM and contributes to the literature concerning the effects of higher education experiences on post-graduation plans by examining an understudied population: international doctoral students enrolled in S&E fields at a public university. In his theory, Tinto (1993) posits that the social and academic integration into a higher education institution is the foundation for students’ academic success. One of the criticisms of Tinto’s theory is that it does not apply to non-traditional students or those underrepresented in higher education (e.g., African-American), so one can question whether it should apply to international students who also experience challenges on campus. - 6 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 However, Tinto recognized that a student comes to school with an individual background, motivation, academic preparation, study skills, goals and intentions that influence his or her ability to integrate academically and socially into the campus environment. Academic integration concerns the degree to which students interact with faculty, in and outside of the classroom, and the degree to which they become part of the campus’ culture. Social integration represents student’s interaction with peers (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). As Tinto himself suggested, students who do not sufficiently integrate, socially and academically, into the college environment run the risk of being isolated within the campus environment. We argue that tenets of Tinto’s theory can be extended to the academic and social experiences of international graduate students. Likewise, Berry’s acculturation model (1997) provides a useful framework to examine the cultural adjustment of international students in the United States. Berry defined acculturation as the social and psychological exchanges that take place when there is continuous interaction between individuals from different cultures. According to Berry (1994), international students who are not fully integrated into the new culture might experience culture shock. Berry explored what happened to individuals when they attempted to adapt to a new culture. He explained that individuals either continued to act in the new culture as they did in the previous one, or tried to change their behavior, values, and beliefs. Berry (2003) noted in his later work that a person exposed to a new culture would undergo a process of change and could adopt various coping strategies. Berry’s notion of cultural integration is similar to Tinto’s notions of academic and social integration. A person using the integration coping strategy shows an interest in learning and participating in the host culture even if maintaining ties with the native culture. We argue that Tinto’s Student Integration Model (1993) and Berry’s Acculturation Model (1997) provide a useful framework to study how international doctoral students present on American campuses experience and respond to various academic, social and cultural challenges. RESEARCH METHOD Data Collection This is an empirical study that employs quantitative methods to analyze survey data collected by researchers in 2013-2014. The data were gathered at a large public research university located in the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex. The university serves about 35,000 students who attend more than 180 degree programs in 12 different schools and colleges. This university offers 71 masters and 30 doctoral degrees in nine different academic areas that include science and engineering. - 7 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 In Fall 2013, the university enrolled about 7,500 graduate students (both international and domestic) with almost 2,000 students in the S&E fields. Of these 2,000 S&E graduate students, 74% were in engineering while 26% in science. In engineering, international graduate students ranked first place with over 1,000 students comprising 69% of the total graduate engineering student population. Although the number of international graduate students in science (about 150) is not as high as in engineering, they comprised 27% of the graduate science students, ranking the second largest. Overall, the international graduate students combined to make up more than half (58%) of the entire graduate student population in science and engineering at this university. About 500 of the 1,150 international graduate students in S&E were enrolled in a doctoral program, and they represented the target population for this study. After examining numerous empirical and theoretical studies on international students and graduate school experience, the authors developed a survey instrument for online administration (Ugwu, 2014). In order to ensure content validity of the questionnaire, the researchers asked a colleague to review and comment on the survey construction, wording format, clarity and question flow as to capture international graduate students’ experiences and post-graduation plans. A face-to-face pilot study was then conducted with a few international doctoral students to ensure that the participants were able to understand the questions and complete the survey. The survey was conducted online. Three sets of emails were sent to the international doctoral students through the Office of International Education and the S&E departments. Emails included an introduction to the study, information about the survey, confidentiality policy, estimated survey completion time, and the online survey’s web link. The survey instrument included an informed consent on the first page. Only those who agreed to participate were able to access the survey. IRB approval was received from the university prior to conducting the data collection, research, and reporting. Participants An invitation was sent to about 500 international doctoral students at the university in October 2013 and 129 responded by December 2013(a response rate of about 26%). Of the 129 respondents, about 91 students answered the survey and provided relevant information. Of the 129 respondents, 75 students completed answers on the main variables and had valid data for inclusion in the study. Therefore, the study’s sample size was N=75. The final response rate of 15% was consistent with recent research showing that response rates tend to be lower in online than paper surveys (in their study, Sax, Gilmartin, and Bryant (2003) found online response rates - 8 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 ranging from 17.1% to 19.8% while paper response rates ranged from 22% to 24%). The research sample consisted of 53.3% Asian, non-Hispanic, 32% White, non-Hispanic, and 14.7% other races. Males accounted for 68% and females 32% of the sample. It included 50.7% and 49.3% of the S&E programs’ international students, respectively. Variables and data analysis Table 1 presents the study’s variables. The main outcomes were students’ post-graduation plans and graduate school experiences. We conducted an exploratory factor analysis that served to uncover the relationships between survey items and identify the three hypothesized dimensions of graduate school experience: academic experiences, social involvement, and cultural global values. For each of them, we checked the scale’s reliability and obtained high Cronbach’s alpha (Table 1) as a measure of internal consistency. Table 1: Data Variables Variable Categories/Variables Age 3-category variable: 20-25; 26-30; Over 30 Sex 2-category variable: male; female Race/Ethnicity 3-category variable: White, non-Hispanic; Asian, non- Hispanic; Other -- under-represented minorities (URM) English language 2-category variable: Some difficulties; No difficulties skills (Overall English skills are computed as an average of speaking, writing, reading scores ranging from 1 to 4. No difficulties category include only those whose overall score equals 4, meaning very good skills) Field of study 2-category variable: science; engineering Outcomes Graduate School Composite scores (range 1-5) corresponding to the 3 experiences dimensions: Academic experiences Academic (10 items, Cronbach’s alpha=.859) Social involvement Social (13 items, Cronbach’s alpha=.941) Cultural global values Cultural (17 items, Cronbach’s alpha=.934) Post-graduation 3-category variable: Stay in U.S. to find a job or continue plans education; Go back to own country- immediately/after working in U.S.; Not sure/ work anywhere in the world The composite scores of academic, social, and cultural experiences represented new variables employed in the analysis. We also included demographic factors (i.e., age, sex), culture-specific factors (race/ethnicity), English language proficiency, and field of study as independent variables. The study employed descriptive statistics, bivariate, and multivariate data analyses. Chi-square tests were used to determine the - 9 - Journal of International Students, 7(1) 2017 association among categorical variables and ANOVA tests were used to determine whether cultural, social, and academic experiences differed by the predictive factors. Finally, a Multinomial Logistic Regression (MLR) was conducted to examine the relationship between the main dependent variable (post-graduation plans) and a set of eight predictors (i.e., age, sex, race /ethnicity, field of study, English language skills, and cultural, social, and academic graduate school experiences). The sample size of 75 closely satisfied the MLR’s sample size requirement (Schwab, 2002). RESULTS Graduate School Experiences We identified three dimensions of graduate school experiences by following the proposed conceptual framework combining Tinto’s Student Integration Model (1993) and Berry’s Acculturation Model (1997). As shown in Table 2, descriptive statistics and ANOVA F-tests were used to compare the three scale scores by various individual factors. Table 2: Graduate school experiences -- Comparative analysis (ANOVA) Factors N Academic Social Cultural global experiences involvement values M p-value M p-value M p-value Age 20-25 20 4.3 .548 2.4 .138 4.5 .022* 26-30 36 4.1 2.0 4.2 Over 30 19 4.2 2.3 4.1 Sex Male 51 4.2 .480 2.2 .975 4.2 .813 Female 24 4.1 2.2 4.3 Race/Ethnicity Asian, non-Hispanic 40 4.2 .238 2.3 .157 4.2 .433 White, non-Hispanic 24 4.1 2.1 4.3 Other 11 3.9 1.8 4.4 Field of Study Science 38 4.1 .578 2.1 .588 4.4 .094+ Engineering 37 4.2 2.4 4.2 English language skills No difficulties 32 4.3 .131 2.1 .230 4.4 .014* Some difficulties 43 4.1 2.3 4.1 ALL 75 4.2 2.2 4.3 *p< 0.05 +p<0.1 First, the overall score for the social involvement dimension (mean=2.2) was low compared to academic experiences (mean=4.2) and cultural values (mean=4.3) dimensions; this showed that international - 10 -

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Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.