Parent Involvement, Technology, and Media: Now What? Eva N. Patrikakou Abstract The rapid technological advances, the expansion of online media use, and the declining cost of mobile technology have introduced a communication factor that has precipitously affected parent involvement and the relationship between parents and children. The present article explores ways through which technol- ogy and online media have affected interactions, the impact such developments have had on parent involvement in children’s lives, as well as the school’s role in keeping parenting relevant in these confusing times. An adaptation of the ten principles of good parenting for a technology- and media-dominated en- vironment are also offered for enhancing parent–child interactions and parent involvement in their children’s lives and learning. Key Words: parent involvement, online media, mobile technology, parenting, Internet, family interactions, learning, education, school, home, roles Introduction Over the past three decades, researchers and practitioners alike intently ex- plored the power of parent involvement and its impact on student development and learning. Numerous studies investigated the type and nature of parent in- volvement effects and explored models of fostering home–school partnerships to enhance academic, social, and emotional learning (e.g., Eccles & Harold, 1993; Epstein & Sheldon, 2002; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; Patrikakou, School Community Journal, 2016, Vol. 26, No. 2 9 Available at http://www.schoolcommunitynetwork.org/SCJ.aspx SCHOOL COMMUNITY JOURNAL Weissberg, Redding, & Walberg, 2005; Sheridan, Marvin, Knoche, & Ed- wards, 2008). Just when we thought we had a good grasp of the factors and relationships involved, it seems that we have been thrown back—perhaps not to square one, but not far from it. The ways through which technology and media use have been influencing parent–child interactions and parent involvement, as well as the school’s role in supporting parents to navigate the complex parameters of parenting in the digital era, are not well understood. In an effort to shed light on these aspects, the present article provides an overview of the growing access to technology and its broader impact on the lives of children and adolescents, family interac- tions, parenting and parent involvement, as well as the school’s brokering role in this technology-immersed world. Growing Access to Technology The rapid Internet boom since the 1990s, as well as the speedy expansion of mobile technology and its declining cost in recent years, have introduced a new interaction avenue and a communication factor that plays an increasingly important role in the relationships among parents, teachers, and students. The current generation is the first one that has known digital technology since birth and seems to feel the most comfortable with it—also known as digital natives, these are individuals born at the turn of the 21st century (Prensky, 2001a, 2001b, 2009). This generation has also been referred to as the Net Generation (Tapscott, 1998) or Millennials (Howe & Strauss, 2000). The term digital na- tives is often contrasted with that of digital immigrants, which describes those generations that encountered digital means and technological advances at some later point in life. With students being digital natives while parents and teachers are often digital immigrants, one wonders how the relationship among parents, students, and teachers is now filtered and regulated through technol- ogy and media use. Although there is a digital divide with higher income households having more access to computers at home and being more likely to use the Inter- net, access trends among various household income levels seem to be slowly converging (Perrin & Duggan, 2015). According to a 2014 report, 62% of households with an annual income less than $25,000 reported having a com- puter at home, while reported computer access in households with annual incomes between $50,000 and $99,000 was 93% (File & Camille, 2014). The Pew Research Center (2012) also reports that 97% of children between the ages of 12 and 17 have online access, which indicates that youth access the In- ternet via devices other than home computers—potentially school computers or handheld devices such as smartphones. 10 PARENTS, TECHNOLOGY, AND MEDIA Expanding the infrastructure for universal, affordable access to high speed (broadband) Internet has been part of public policy for more than a decade already. On March 26, 2004, President George W. Bush proclaimed that “this country needs a national goal for broadband technology, for the spread of broadband technology. We ought to have a universal, affordable access for broadband technology by the year 2007” (2004, para. 1). In June 2013, Presi- dent Obama announced the ConnectED initiative, which intends to provide access to next-generation broadband to 99% of American students by 2017, emphasizing that such connectivity will better prepare students to acquire those skills necessary to compete in an increasingly globalized economy. The President has directed the federal government to get educational technology in classrooms by making better use of existing funds, and he also called upon businesses to support this effort with donations of hardware and software. Following the 2014 State of the Union address, the President noted that signif- icant progress has been made on this initiative, highlighting commitments by the FCC and the private sector (White House, n.d.). Such expansion of Inter- net access will enhance communication and provide additional opportunities to rural and low-income communities. With the digital expansion being part of the presidential agenda for more than a decade and actual media use growing exponentially, access to informa- tion has become immediate and broader than ever before. Such immediate access has had a profound impact on learning. A trip to the library seems a relic from a past era, while an Internet search is more likely what digital natives mean when referring to doing “research” on a topic (Palfrey & Gasser, 2008). It is expected that, in turn, these changes are also rapidly transforming the classroom and the broader educational framework. Of teachers surveyed, 81% report that they have access to personal computers or laptops in their class- room, and 63% use them daily (PBS Learning Media, 2015). Children and adolescents spend more than seven hours a day with media (which is the most time spent on any activity, including sleep), and 97% of adolescents report that they play video games on a variety of platforms, includ- ing computers, handheld devices, and game consoles (Rideout, Foerher, & Roberts, 2010; Strasburg, Jordan, & Donnerstein, 2010). Often, it seems that time spent on a computer by students far exceeds the reported seven hours, especially since the number of schools that are going “green” or paper-free is increasing rapidly. Consider a day in the life of a middle school student, for example. She wakes up, checks text messages, grabs her tablet or laptop, and heads to school. There, she takes notes on her computer, reads and discusses from an e-text, and enjoys endless “apps” on all school subjects (it is indeed fas- cinating to see a 3-D representation of the human cell, virtually dissect it, and 11 SCHOOL COMMUNITY JOURNAL explore its organelles!). Then it is time to go home; she text messages on the way. When at home, she listens to music on the phone or another electronic device. She completes and submits her homework electronically, while prep- ping for tomorrow’s globalization discussion by reading a few articles on the topic online and learning globalization-related concepts. Overuse of Computers and Media? At first look, this glimpse into a middle-schooler’s technology-heavy day may appear overwhelming—even alarming—in a variety of ways. Indeed, this extensive computer and media use in children’s lives has brought forth several commentaries and books on computer and media use and their potential nega- tive impact on culture, education, and society, as well as on parent, student, and teacher relationships. Whether browsing in an actual bookstore (the few that are left) or a virtual one, the titles and content of these books paint what seems to be a distressing picture of the current and future state of technology integration in all facets of life: “The way we live is eroding our capacity for deep, sustained, perceptive attention” (Jackson, 2009, p. 13). “Designed to serve us, please us, inform us, entertain us, and connect us, over time our digital devic- es have finally come to define us” (Steiner-Adair, 2013, p. 4). Computer use by children has also prompted a policy statement from the Council on Com- munications and Media of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) that expresses concern over increased media use and warns of its potential harmful effects. However, it is important to note that this statement also recognizes the positive impact of media use (AAP Council on Communications and Media, 2013). Recommendations made by AAP (2013) range from limiting screen time to two hours a day to monitoring web sites and social networking activity and establishing mealtime and bedtime “curfews” for all media-access devices. In order for a medium to be considered overused, it must be used beyond the point of being effective and start to become harmful. In addition, the ques- tion arises of whether technology and media use is different than the use of any other tool that is as good as its user. In the sections that follow, let’s consider this in light of the infusion of technology and media in that middle-schooler’s life: social and family interactions, as well as the impact on parenting and parent in- volvement. Are there productive ways to take advantage of the tech-savvy ways of the digital natives to enhance learning, parenting, and parent involvement? Interactions in a Tech-Immersed World Technology has always altered the nature of social interactions, including those within the family. In its most recent forms, whether a public venue (e.g., chatrooms) or private media (e.g., instant messaging), a different type of social 12 PARENTS, TECHNOLOGY, AND MEDIA interaction has rapidly evolved. Staying up-to-date with the latest version of technological gadgets has become a sign of status that has begun having an impact on peer relationships and gaining peer acceptance. “You are definitely not ‘cool’ if you don’t have the latest technology in cell phones, one or more iPads, and an e-book reader” (Jerpi, 2012, para. 7). This phenomenon can be considered as a contemporary example of the social life of things, where the ex- istence of people is responsible for the creation of objects, and, in turn, the use of such objects—or in this case media—is responsible for impacting human existence (Appadurai, 1986). Such influence can have significant implications for identity formation and the development of self-worth for children and, es- pecially, adolescents who are exploring who they are and in what they believe. Specifically, in recent years, articles that investigate identity formation and me- dia draw attention to the phenomenon of a fragmented self-image stemming from the struggle with which teenagers are faced to integrate the varied online experiences of self-exploration into a cohesive picture of self (Davis, 2012; Valkenburg & Peter, 2011). Online interactions lack features that have been a crucial part of human relations, such as eye contact, body language, and voice inflections and, there- fore, are often characterized as lacking the richness of face-to-face interactions. However, there have been both positive and negative features identified in on- line interactions. Relieving the social anxiety of meeting and interacting with people whom you do not know well is an example of the former, while cyber- bullying and sexual predation are examples of the latter, new phenomena that have caught families and schools by surprise, forcing us to scramble to address issues in a crisis mode (Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 2008). Adolescents report feeling more comfortable sharing their feelings online, as they feel they can be more honest and (especially for more shy teenagers) utilize the safety of being behind the screen to reach out and communicate (Rosen, 2007). It could be argued, though, that the minimization of social anxiety in an online environment may not foster quality social bonding. It could also lead to inappropriate self-disclosure and to compromised privacy (Ballantyne, 2011). Thinking carefully and planning before acting are important ingredi- ents of responsible decision-making and gathering trust that, in turn, lead to meaningful social interactions. Therefore, removing or minimizing social anxi- ety may not always act as a facilitator of relationship-building (Farfan, 2013). It has also been indicated that most adolescents and young adults use online networks to extend and enhance already existing, offline friendships, indicat- ing a “friendship-driven” and also “self-directed” form of social and emotional learning (Ito et al., 2008; Jacobsen & Forste, 2011). 13 SCHOOL COMMUNITY JOURNAL The ways in which online interactions affect face-to-face relations are not yet fully understood, and conflicting findings have created controversy regarding the issues between online and face-to-face interactions (Kujath, 2011). Emerg- ing patterns beg the question of the direction of causality. In other words, were face-to-face interactions problematic to begin with and that increased the desire for and pursuit of online interactions; or have online interactions directly curbed the occurrence and quality of face-to-face relationships? Some evidence indicates that youth seeking out online relationships with strangers had preexisting high conflict levels with their parents as well as low levels of communication (Wolak, Mitchel, & Finkelhor, 2003). Also, teenagers who spent a lot of time on social interaction sites felt that they received less sup- port from their parents (Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 2008). However, other evidence suggests that youth use online media to extend already existing, of- fline relationships and do not pursue online interactions because their offline, face-to-face interactions are problematic (Ito et al., 2008; Schurgin O’Keeffe, Clarke-Pearson, & Council on Communications and Media, 2011). Although these two broad types of evidence seem to contradict each other, they may just be pointing to the intricacies of media use, prompting us to closely examine the complexity of the reasons behind the use of certain media as a means to maintain and, to a different extent, form new relationships. Family Interactions and Technology One of the most important contexts of socialization, the family has not been immune from the use of technology and media, with both positive and negative effects (Patrikakou, 2015). For example, cell phones and other new handheld devices have undermined family practices such as mealtimes and have established new generational boundaries, including the lack of screening calls by parents (Ling & Yttri, 2006). Although tech-using families are less likely to share meals, they also experience benefits from the use of technology. For exam- ple, new forms of family connectedness have become possible with cell phone use and communal Internet experiences, making it more feasible to coordinate busy schedules, be in frequent communication, share news and happenings, and create common experiences in cyberspace (Kennedy, Smith, Wells, & Well- man, 2008). Although it has been indicated that adolescents’ Internet use can have a negative impact on family cohesion, it can also facilitate the creation of family experiences and memories and foster the family’s collective identity (Mesch, 2006). Such an identity has been traditionally formed through com- mon activities, including mealtimes or chatting about one’s day. It has been argued that frequency of Internet use negatively impacts these family-shared 14 PARENTS, TECHNOLOGY, AND MEDIA activities. However, one should take into account the context for Internet use before categorizing the activity as having a de facto negative impact on family cohesion. For example, at times when children are not at home, media use to keep in touch with them and share information or pictures could strengthen family ties and actually reinforce the family’s collective identity. Technology and media use also expand the coparenting experience, especially in postdi- vorce cases when parents live apart, and the use of technology can facilitate communication in order to plan and make joint decisions for their children while avoiding coparental conflicts (Ganong et al., 2012). In addition, contrary to popular belief, parent–child interactions within social media platforms such as Facebook have been shown to enhance their relationship by decreasing preexisting conflict and fostering closeness between parents and older children (Kanter, Afifi, & Robins, 2012). For example, a par- ent “friending” their child on Facebook is not viewed as an invasion of privacy, but it has the potential to reduce already existing parent–child conflict, prob- ably because older children are reportedly more likely to engage in a discussion and even disclose additional information online than they are in a face-to-face conversation (Kanter et al., 2012). Another finding contrary to a broadly held impression is that monitored technology use, such as that of cell phones, is not necessarily viewed by children as a means of parental intrusion, but instead is seen as part of expected parental monitoring and, more importantly, as consis- tent with a supportive relationship between parent and child (Blair & Fletcher, 2011). Learning Outcomes The use of new technology also affects parent–child interactions in ways that have a direct impact on academic as well as social and emotional learning. For example, mother–child interactions when reading a book differ depend- ing on the use of electronic versus printed books. Specifically, when using an e-book, children were more responsive to prompts by the mother and also initiated discussion about the story they were reading with their mother signifi- cantly more times than when reading a printed copy (Korat & Or, 2010). This finding could be attributed to the multimedia nature of e-books that include sounds, music, animations, or read-along features that significantly enhance, sustain, and extend child interest during this parent–child activity. In general, computer use at home has been found to be associated with enhanced learning and increased academic achievement over time, especially for girls (Hofferth, 2010). Family use of technology also strengthens parent modeling of a variety of activities and their completion rather than explicit tu- toring. Since learning at home and family use of technology are increasingly 15 SCHOOL COMMUNITY JOURNAL intertwined, this interaction contributes to the creation of a stronger link be- tween family culture and learning (Plester & Wood, 2009). In turn, use of technology and media by families provides the unique opportunity of fostering the education continuum between school and home and, therefore, expand- ing learning while better involving parents in the educational process (Becker, 2007). Parent Involvement in Education Schools and districts can maximize parent involvement and positively con- tribute to enhancing parent–child relationships. Through school websites, parents can be kept abreast not only of their child’s progress, but also made aware of specific topics, activities, and assessments in which their child is in- volved. For example, having online access to textbooks and other learning materials can further increase parent involvement at home and enhance mod- eling of healthy homework habits (Olmstead, 2013). Also, online gradebooks that give parents and students 24-hour access to expectations, assignments, due dates, grades, and so on provide opportunities for parents to communicate with their children regarding school work and progress and may also prompt parents to reach out to teachers more frequently because, by being continu- ously informed, they feel more involved in their child’s education (Zieger & Tan, 2012). In this way, both parent involvement at home and home–school communication can be enhanced to better support student school work and achievement. It is important to note that schools and districts must ensure that such technology use won’t alienate families whose access to technology may not be as extensive, by offering alternative points of technology access such as pub- lic libraries or expanding programs for checking out tablets or laptops. The Core Principles of Parenting and Parent Involvement in a Tech-Immersed World Good parenting helps foster empathy, honesty, self-reliance, self-control, kindness, and cooperation. It also promotes intellectual curiosity, motivation, and the desire to achieve (Steinberg, 2005). These characteristics have not changed with the increased use of technology; if anything, parents need to be even more diligent in observing these principles with the precipitous changes brought forth by technology and media use. Steinberg (2005, 2011) offers ten basic principles of good parenting: (a) what you do matters; (b) you can- not be too loving; (c) be involved in your child’s life; (d) adapt your parenting to fit your child; (e) establish rules and set limits; (f) help foster your child’s 16 PARENTS, TECHNOLOGY, AND MEDIA independence; (g) be consistent; (h) avoid harsh discipline; (i) explain your rules and decisions; and (j) treat your child with respect. The core of these principles remains intact despite the massive invasion of technology and media use, and these principles are applicable to navigating ap- propriate media use. Especially, leading by example has assumed a paramount role: How many times do we find ourselves asking children to stop playing with their phones or other electronic devices while, at the same time, we our- selves are emailing and texting? If we indeed want to carve out face-to-face interaction time with our children, we have to be the first ones to be disci- plined enough to remove ourselves from the glowing screen. For example, if we do not want children and teenagers leaving the dinner table when the cell phone rings, a text dings, or an email alert chimes, we should not leave the table at every ring, ding, or chime. In addition, being online all the time creates hazardous conditions with distracted parents putting children at risk for harm by not monitoring them appropriately while they are absorbed by activities such as texting or emailing. Equally importantly, tech-centered parenting may be perceived by a child as having an emotionally absent or neglectful parent (Steiner-Adair, 2013). This distracted way of parenting prevents opportunities for sustained attention and reflection, in turn affecting the way we interact with our environment and make sense of the world around us. While setting rules and expectations for web access and technology use is important, it is equally important to clearly explain those rules and apply them consistently. Children are testing and pushing the limits from the time they are born, so the probability for parents encountering instances of rule breaking, especially during adolescence, is high. As frustrating as this can be, it can also serve as a teachable moment to further responsible decision-making. Parents cannot and are not going to be present all the time their children use technolo- gy and media, so the ultimate goal is to foster accountability and independence in order for children to be able to make safe choices for themselves and take ownership of their actions. Technology and media will define us as parents and the way in which we are involved in our children’s lives only if we do not apply common sense, fail to observe basic principles of parenting, and take our eyes off the ball to raise children to become knowledgeable, caring, and responsible adults. Figure 1 and the bulleted list that follows it describe the interrelated principles of par- ent involvement (Steinberg, 2005, 2011) and offer specific suggestions of ways they can be applied in this era of technology and media immersion. 17 SCHOOL COMMUNITY JOURNAL Lead by example Be involved in your children’s net life Treat your children with respect Establish clear rules and Adapt your parenting to set limits productively address increased technology and media use Explain your rules and decisions regarding Praise your children's positive computer use and web technology and media use access Monitor children's computer If media-access rules are broken, use, but do not micromanage remain calm—remember, you lead their choices by example. Apply consequences Apply rules consistently Figu re 1. Ten interrelated principles of parent involvement applied to technol- ogy and media use. 18