Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, Issue 64, 2016, 319-340 Social Studies Teachers’ Perceptions and Experiences of Social Justice* Sercan BURSA Arife Figen ERSOY Suggested Citation: Bursa, S., & Ersoy, A. F. (2016). Social studies teachers‘ perceptions and experiences of social justice. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 64, 319-340 Abstract Problem Statement: Social justice addresses inequality in society, including economic inequality, global migration, racism, xenophobia, prejudice against disabled people, and class discrimination. In Turkey, social studies curriculum aims to cultivate active, democratically minded citizens who value justice, independence, peace, solidarity, tolerance, freedom, and respect and demonstrate critical thinking skills, problem solving skills, social participation, and empathy. Purpose: Since social justice education affects teachers‘ values, beliefs, experiences, practices, and views on social justice, we aimed to understand social studies teachers‘ perceptions and experiences of social justice. Methods: Following a phenomenological research design selected in accordance with maximum variation sampling, we recruited 10 teachers for our sample. We collected data by conducting semi-structured interviews with the teachers and classroom observations of four of them. We analyzed data by following an inductive approach. Findings: Teachers perceived the concept of social justice in terms of equality, justice, discrimination, human rights, respect, and tolerance. Teachers expressed their sensitivity to equalitarianism, as well as their efforts to prevent discrimination in their daily lives, abide by social rules, protect the environment, and not violate disabled citizens. A few teachers * This research was generated from a master‘s thesis, which was supported by Anadolu University‘s Scientific Research Project Unit (no. 1502E0890). The research was previously presented as an oral presentation at the 5th International Symposium on Social Studies Education organized by Pamukkale University on April 28, 2016.  Corresponding author: Research Assistant, Faculty of Education, Anadolu University, 26470, Eskisehir, Turkey, [email protected]. Assoc. Prof., Faculty of Education, Anadolu University, 26470, Eskisehir, Turkey, [email protected]. 320 Sercan Bursa, & Arife Figen Ersoy reported their active engagement in the activities of non-governmental organizations, and all teachers generally indicated that the development of their perceptions of social justice had been affected by their families, educational backgrounds, living environment, and the schools where they work. The teachers expressed not discriminating students, exhibiting positive attitudes toward them, and to some extent, demonstrating aspects of human rights, democracy, and environmental protectionism during lessons. However, teachers indicated no perceptions of struggles against injustice and did not report having experiences with such struggles during lessons. In general, their experiences were affected by their perceptions, their experiences in non-governmental activities, curricula, and course textbooks, and the socio-cultural structure of their schools. Conclusions and Recommendations: Social studies teachers‘ perceptions of social justice were consistent with their experiences demonstrated during lessons. The teachers mentioned several examples of historical and recent social injustice, but did not conduct any discussions or solicit suggestions about how to overcome such injustices. It is thus necessary to reconsider pre- and in-service training programs within the context of social justice and education. Keywords: Social justice, Social studies, Citizenship education, Social justice education, Phenomenology Introduction The 21st century has been a period characterized by increased interaction among different social, cultural, and economic classes, as well as the emergence of phenomena such as income injustice and worker migrations, all due to industrialization and the development of the global economy. Such developments have consequently also brought social justice to the fore of various agendas. For Bell (2007, p. 4), social justice refers to; Both a process and a goal. The goal of social justice is full and equal participation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped to meet their needs. Social justice includes a vision of society in which the distribution of resources is equitable and all members are physically and psychologically safe and secure… a society in which individuals are both self-determining and interdependent. Social justice responds to economic inequalities in society and the rise of militarism, global migration, international human trafficking, racism, sexism, homophobia, xenophobia, prejudice against disabled people, and class discrimination (Adams et al., 2010; Apple, 2004). By the same token, protecting and improving fundamental human rights-for instance, the right to work, to protest, to participate in democracy, and to have medical care, housing, and education-inform basic understandings of social justice (Grant & Gibson, 2013). Devoted to creating a fair society, social justice ensures that individuals can live freely and autonomously in safety without being discriminated (Commission on Social Justice, 1998). Social justice also ensures that differences are accepted in societies, that discrimination is Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 321 reduced, and that disadvantaged individuals can express themselves and be empowered (Brooks & Thompson, 2005; Grant & Gibson, 2013). In effect, social justice promotes empathy, courtesy, tolerance, and ethics in establishing social tranquility and in creating democracies and pluralistic societies (Ciardiello, 2010). The gradual development of understandings of social justice has assigned to education the role of teaching students values such as living together in peace, respecting differences, acting against unfair practices, and considering cultural diversity to be a kind of richness. Teaching such values, as well as skills needed in support, is known as social justice education (Au, 2009; McGee & Hostetler, 2014). Raising individuals with clear sense of social justice in turn requires citizenship curriculum based on the ideals of social justice, as part of an education that involves considering the distribution of justice and reasons why unfair practices exist (Grant & Agosto, 2008). It additionally entails empowering disadvantaged groups of society that are unable to fully enjoy financial, political, and educational rights (Lund 2006), struggling against unfair practices that economically disadvantaged people face (Sleeter & Grant, 2007), strengthening global justice and respect for humanity, and improving individual ethics (Ladson–Billings, 2006). Other fundamental tenets of social justice education include ensuring that every individual develops skills and competences (Tungaraza, 2007) and eliminating social and financial inequalities by establishing pluralistic, democratic communities in schools (Furman & Shields, 2003). To those ends, social justice education is a process that encourages criticism and change in society by helping children to learn how to understand other people‘s values and beliefs, as well as to define and resolve injustice around the world (Bell, 2007). It aims to nurture citizens who can understand diversity and intergroup interaction, criticize social institutions, and cooperate with different individuals (Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 1997). In that sense, social justice education is nourished by humanistic education, which emphasizes individualism in planning educational activities (Patterson, 1973); feminist education, which emphasizes improving the fundamental human rights of women in society (Hooks, 1981); multicultural education, which advocates curricula that address different cultures (Banks, 1993); critical education, which views social events with a critical lens (McLaren, 2003); and reconstructionism, which aims to foster individuals who care about the well-being of all of society (Boyles, Carusi, & Attick, 2009). Of all academic subjects, social studies encompasses courses that are equipped to advocate social justice and provide citizenship education (Lewis, 2001; McGee & Hostetler, 2014; Ross, 2006; Rubin & Justice, 2005). Social studies lessons aim to ensure that children who live in an independent, pluralistic, and democratic world become active citizens who are aware of and sensitive toward cultural differences and can make wise decisions, both in their private lives and about social issues (NCSS, 1994). Teaching social justice in social studies lessons began during the Great Depression in the United States in the 1930s and became revitalized with reform movements demanding economic, gender, and citizenship equality during the 1960s (Good, 2010). A robust social studies education should emphasize individuals‘ ability to approach social issues with a sense of fairness, to respect cultural differences, to take individual and social responsibility, to struggle against injustices and inadequacies, and to strive to build a better world (NCSS, 1994). In North America and West European countries, for example, social studies lessons addressing social 322 Sercan Bursa, & Arife Figen Ersoy justice are delivered to students among the broader themes of human rights, democracy, and environmental awareness (Wade, 2004). In Turkey, by contrast, although social studies curricula in 2005 made no direct reference to social justice despite its general aim to foster active, democratic citizens, they did seek to instill values such as justice, independence, peace, solidarity, sensitivity, trustworthiness, tolerance, freedom, respect, affection, and benevolence, as well as skills of critical thinking, communication, problem solving, social participation, and empathy, all of which are inherent in social justice (MEB, 2005). In social justice education, teachers‘ values, beliefs, experiences, practices, and views about social justice (Bender–Slack & Raupach, 2008) affect students‘ views about social justice as well (Banks & Banks, 2007). Teachers in social justice education should accordingly provide students with examples of social injustice in society, as well as activities involving critical thinking, conflict resolution, problem solving, and project production, and encourage students to question the rules of society and their rationales. They should moreover make sure that students‘ ideas are respected and valued, respect and improve students‘ individual differences, help students to feel secure, foster their awareness and sensitivity about cultural diversities in social life, and promote their active participation in the classroom, the school, and society (Ayers, 1998; Wade, 2004). Among studies on social justice, which have gradually expanded during the last decades, research in Turkey on educational policies and with school principals (Polat, 2007; Tomul, 2009; Turhan, 2007) has revealed shortcomings in the treatment of income inequality. For one, while the administrative aspects of social justice have been addressed in these studies, its class-based aspects have remained largely ignored. International studies on social justice, by contrast, have focused on school administrators (Bruccoleri, 2008), the development of social justice curriculum (Henderson, 2009), preservice teachers (Lee, 2011), and student perceptions (Storms, 2012). Meanwhile, other research has examined social studies teachers‘ perceptions and experiences of social justice (Bender–Slack & Raupach 2008; Samuels, 2014) and their in-class practices (Good, 2010; Philpott, 2009; Robertson, 2008). However, our literature review revealed that research about social justice education has yet to address how social studies teachers perceive and understand social justice, as well as experience social justice in their classrooms. In response to that gap in the research, we aimed to understand social studies teachers‘ perceptions and experiences of social justice in social studies lessons. In this study, we therefore sought to answer four questions: 1. What are social studies teachers‘ perceptions of social justice? 2. What are social studies teachers‘ perceptions of social justice education? 3. What are social studies teachers‘ perceptions of the role of social justice in social studies? 4. What are social studies teachers‘ experiences of social justice in social studies? Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 323 Methods Research Design We conducted this study according to a qualitative research design, which offers opportunities for richer depictions of situations and phenomena when participants are teachers (Mertens, 2005). More specifically, we followed a design of phenomenological research, which generally attempts to define participants‘ experiences and understandings, as well as explore associations between phenomenon and individuals (Moustakas, 1994). In phenomenological studies, interpretations are made about a concept or phenomenon in light of participants‘ expressed experiences (Creswell, 1998). In our study, the phenomenon was the concept of social justice, which we sought to clarify in terms of social justice educators‘ perceptions and classroom experiences. Participants Since perceptions of social justice are affected by personal traits, social and cultural settings, and working conditions (Grant & Gillette, 2006), we used maximum variation sampling to recruit teachers for our study. We selected teachers according to their professional experience, the socio-economic status of the students they teach, their awareness of social justice, their philosophy of life, and their educational background. To form a diverse sample of teachers, we recruited from faculty at schools of different socio-economic status. The teachers, who varied in terms of professional experience, age, department where they earned their degree, and membership in non-governmental organizations (NGO), were informed of the study, and volunteers were recruited into the sample. Ultimately, our sample included 10 social studies teachers, all of whom participated in two individual semi-structured interviews, each at two points in time. Between those times, we applied maximum variation sampling to select four of the 10 teachers to be observed in their classrooms. To that end, we considered five factors: the diversity of the socio-economic status of the schools where they taught, the regions of Turkey where they were raised and earned their degrees to teach social studies, their membership in professional organizations or NGOs, and their self-report about engaging in practices related to social justice in their social studies classes. Table 1 presents the demographic and professional information of participating teachers. Table 1 Demographic and Professional Information of Participating Teachers Name Data Type School’s Years .Union Degree Degree collection of SES as member? program or earned source school teacher department Yigit Interview, State Middle– 6 Yes Social Bachelor‘s observation low studies teaching program 324 Sercan Bursa, & Arife Figen Ersoy Table 1 Continue Demographic and Professional Information of Participating Teachers Name Data Type School’s Years .Union Degree Degree collection of SES as member? program or earned source school teacher department Ersin Interview, State Low 10 Yes Social Bachelor‘s observation studies teaching program Gulcan Interview, Private Upper 11 No Social Bachelor‘s observation studies teaching program Mustafa Interview, State Middle 18 Yes Social Bachelor‘s observation studies teaching program Gulten Interview Private Upper 11 No Social Bachelor‘s studies teaching program Melek Interview Private Upper 12 No Social Bachelor‘s studies teaching program Okan Interview State Low 9 Yes Social Bachelor‘s studies teaching program Ercan Interview Private Upper 11 No Social Bachelor‘s studies teaching program Ahmet Interview State Middle 17 Yes History Master‘s department Emine Interview State Low 5 No Social Bachelor‘s studies teaching program Note. All names have been changed; SES = Socioeconomic status Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 325 Data Collection We collected data by conducting semi-structured interviews and observations of participants. Developed based on previous research (Good, 2010; Lee, 2011; Robertson, 2008; Samuels, 2014) and expert opinions, we finalized the interview guide following pre-interviews. Using the guide, we interviewed 10 social studies teachers twice from November 25 to December 3, 2014. During the first interview, we asked teachers questions to clarify their perceptions of social justice, whereas during the second interview, we asked them general and personal questions designed as a result of our analysis of initial interviews at a macro level. During the latter interviews, the four teachers selected to be observed were asked questions about their statements in the first interview and about their statements, attitudes, and behaviors witnessed during observations in their classrooms. The first author conducted classroom observations totaling 126 lesson hours— that is, roughly 30 hours with each of the four teachers—for 5 months from December 3, 2014, to May 14, 2015. By grade level, the classes observed covered social studies coursework in 5th, 6th, and 7th grade and all units of the courses except the first. As such, the first author observed all units of social studies. Altogether, teachers were observed addressing issues of social justice in units titled ―Workers for Society‖ in 5th grade, ―The Adventure of Democracy‖ in 6th grade, and ―Living Democracy‖ in 7th grade. Adopted the role of participant as observer, the first author observed events developed during lessons taught and took field notes (Glesne, 2012). While taking notes, the observer focused on whether each teacher mentioned topics related to social justice during lessons and whether they provided examples of social injustices, as well as noted activities employed to raise students‘ awareness of social justice, the teacher‘s behavior, teacher–student relations, and the general climate of the class. Data Analysis We inductively analyzed data obtained via semi-structured interviews and participant observations in five steps (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Glesne, 2012). In the first step, we transferred data to the computer and read them several times for better understanding, while in the second, we analyzed data in depth to identify patterns. In the third, we coded data using NVivo 10 and, in the fourth, categorized generated codes in order to generate both specific and general themes. Fifth and lastly, we synthesized categorized codes in order to yield primary themes. In reporting findings, we took direct quotations from interviews and observation data, all identified by using the participants‘ pseudonyms. For the sake of validity and reliability, we performed triangulation by confirming data from semi-structured interviews and observations (Patton, 2014). We solicited expert opinions during data analysis (Creswell, 2008; Glesne, 2012) and shared data with participants for their approval. Ultimately, we identified four primary themes and 15 subthemes, as shown in Table 2. 326 Sercan Bursa, & Arife Figen Ersoy Table 2 Themes and Subthemes of Data Collected During Interviews and Classroom Observations Themes Subthemes Perceptions of Meaning of social justice social justice (i.e., being equal, being tolerant, being respectful to human rights, being non-discriminatory, being fair) Characteristics of people with a sense of social justice (i.e., empathy, obedience of the law, respect of human rights, acceptance of different cultures) Role of sociocultural structure for developing perceptions of social justice (i.e., families sensitive to social issues play a greater role, university education is important, people working in private institutions experience more social injustice, cities with a powerful understanding of civil society are more effective) Social studies teachers‘ experiences with social justice (i.e., attending non-governmental activities, non-discrimination, sensitivity to the environment, respect for different ideas, obedience of social rules) View of social justice in Turkey and the world (i.e., problems for disabled people, problems for women, problems for businesses and employees, the exploitation of African countries) Relationship between social justice and media (i.e., normalization of social injustice) Perceptions of Social studies teachers‘ perceptions of social justice education social justice (i.e., teaching the concept of social justice, teaching values, encouraging education students to respect each other) Perceptions of Responsibilities of teachers in social justice education the role of (i.e., pay attention to individual differences, respect different identities, social justice in describe social injustices and proposed solutions, be a role model for social studies students, be an active citizen) courses Meaning of social studies courses (i.e., to nurture active citizens, to prepare individuals for life, to teach the social sciences) Aims of social studies (i.e., To nurture active citizens, to teach the social sciences, to convey information about democracy and social rules) Social justice in social studies textbooks and curricula Experiences of Teacher–student relationships in the classroom social (i.e., avoiding humiliating and degrading behaviors, trying to provide justice in social justice among students) studies courses Mentioning the dimensions of social justice (i.e., Democracy, human rights, environmental protection, state social works) Activities performed in the context of social justice (i.e., interviews, role-play) Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 327 Findings Social Studies Teachers’ Perceptions of Social Justice Meaning of social justice. Since the concept of social justice does not explicitly appear in social studies, course textbooks, or social studies programs, the teachers did not explicitly describe social justice to their students. However, they did mention concepts related to social justice. In interviews, the teachers defined social justice in terms of justice, discrimination, human rights, respect, and tolerance. Teachers who defined it especially in terms of equality emphasized interpersonal equality, equal opportunity, equality before the law, and the equal distribution of social opportunities. For example, Gulcan defined social justice as ―treating people equally,‖ Gulten as ―equality for everybody before the law,‖ and Ersin as ―the equal distribution of resources,‖ all by referring to different dimensions of social justice. At the same time, referring to issues of women‘s rights, Ataturk often stated the need to provide equal opportunities for women and men in society. By contrast, Ahmet and Emine mentioned distributional justice and defined social justice as ―ensuring justice in the distribution of income and determining wages fairly.‖ Another meaning that teachers attributed to social justice referred to discrimination, particularly class-based, financial, and gender discrimination. For example, while defining social justice, Emine said that ―social justice is not discriminating any individuals whatsoever—that is, not discriminating girls from boys or the rich from the poor or people raised in villages from people raised in cities.‖ By extension, Ahmet and Yigit stressed the protection of disadvantaged groups in society, whereas Okan defined social justice by saying simply, ―It is protecting people‘s rights.‖ Defining social justice as respecting individuals and showing tolerance to others, Gulcan frequently told her students during lessons that they should tolerate their peers and occasionally explained the importance of tolerance. Characteristics of individuals with a sense of social justice. Teachers defined individuals with a sense of social justice as those who respect people and human rights and are democratic and helpful. Mustafa reported that a sense of social justice requires individuals to display respectful attitudes and behaviors, even toward people whom they do not like. Similarly, he told students that people with a sense of social justice should be empathetic: ―It‘s so important, children. Empathy is, for example, thinking that, ‗If there was injustice, if it happened to me, then how would I feel?‘‖ Okan also emphasized that individuals with a sense of social justice should have empathy and consider not only themselves, but also others both near and far in social relations: ―A person with a developed sense of social justice thinks about people who are inferior to him or her, about people who are economically worse off.‖ While characterizing individuals with a sense of social justice, by some contrast, Emine and Okan pointed out the behavior of helping others, while Ersin and Gulten stated that such individuals are respectful of human rights. Highlighting respect and tolerance of different cultures, Emine, Mustafa, and Gulcan all stated that what characterizes individuals with a sense of social justice is an ability to embrace another‘s differences and display tolerance. While teaching, Gulcan also mentioned respect for diversity, with expressions such as, ―Democracy requires pluralism. There 328 Sercan Bursa, & Arife Figen Ersoy are various kinds of people in Turkey, from A to Z, yet we should value them because they are all human.‖ Pointing to Denmark as an example, Yigit posited that abiding by laws and rules is an important step toward becoming a person who cares about social justice and emphasized the importance of being intrinsically motivated to abide by rules, instead of doing so simply to avoid punishment. Gulten emphasized the primary responsibilities of citizenship (i.e., paying taxes and voting) of individuals with a sense of social justice: ―For people to have a sense of social justice, they need to be aware of their responsibilities. Responsibility is an important concept.‖ Ahmet argued that an individual with social justice should, in addition to the above characteristics, be knowledgeable about how to defend his or her rights: ―An individual with a developed sense of social justice should first know how to demand. ... One must defend his or her rights. Even if a situation has nothing to do with him or herself, one must defend the rights of weak people.‖ Mustafa added that an individual with a sense of social justice must give voice to any unjust treatment, even when it happens to someone else: ―When anything unfair occurs, I empathize with the affected person and ask myself how I would feel in such a case.‖ Melek defined people with a sense of social justice as those who struggle against injustices, by saying that ―individuals with a strong sense of social justice should be able to react, point to relevant injustices, and offer more appropriate ways of acting, even if the issues don‘t concern them.‖ Unlike the other teachers, however, Okan regarded environmental awareness as a distinguishing feature of people with a sense of social justice. Effects of sociocultural conditions on perceptions of social justice. Teachers stated that in developing their perceptions of social justice, they were primarily affected by their families and education, although also by the institutions in which they work, the cities where they live, and certain other people. They expressed the belief that the concept of social justice is not usually explicitly developed in families, but a learned set of values that amount to a concern for social justice. Teachers who grew up in democratic families stated that they had observed and experienced many values- equality, respect, tolerance, participating in decision-making processes, helpfulness- in their family settings since an early age. Some teachers also remarked that facing financial difficulties in their families raised their awareness of social justice. Referring to this family, Ahmet stated, ―The difficulties that we faced with financial issues, as well as educational, cultural, and health-related ones ... affected the formation of our thoughts and feelings.‖ He similarly acknowledged that his family taught him to treat people equally and help people in need, by saying, ―I mean, not to discriminate among people and to protect the weak: those values constitute the essence of social justice. We learned those values in family settings. In my family, I witnessed the behaviors of sharing with and helping neighbors or some institutions or organizations from time to time, all of which involved protecting the weak.‖ Raised in families with cultural features considerably different from the rest of the society‘s, Mustafa and Ahmet stated that they learned the values that they considered to relate to social justice, including not to discriminate, to embrace differences, and not to humiliate people, in their families. In general, however, the teachers expressed that they could learn about issues concerning social justice more thoroughly in higher education, not only because the issues were covered more comprehensively there, but because they had matured.