Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school Impedovo, M.A; Andreucci, C.; Delserieys-Pedregosa A.; Coiffard, C.; Ginestié, J. Aix-Marseille Université, ENS Lyon, ADEF EA4671 13248, Marseille, France Abstract carries the goal for which it was designed. In other words, In this article we present exploratory research carried out the technical object becomes a necessary mediator in the in order to understand how students (from 12 to 14 years relationship with reality (Akrich, 1987). Understanding the old) relate to technical objects. It uses technical objects characteristics of technical objects becomes necessary for that are part of everyday life and mediated reality. A a more conscious relationship with the world around us. questionnaire was administered to 57 students in French The wide range of applications, such as biotechnology, classes. The questionnaire was composed of three parts: medical implants, and genetics innovations highlights the 1) the detection of technical characteristics of objects; 2) increasingly complex and hybrid development of high- the ability to create relationships between objects; and 3) technology. Such a context brings out the importance of the direct use of technical objects and personal interest in establishing processes of sense-making and problem H sciences and technology. The results show the complexity solving based on technical knowledge to allow people to C of the relationship with technical objects and the need for take more informed choices about energy, climate issues, R an educational mediated intervention of design and use of resources, etc. A E technology education. S In this paper we will focus specifically on technical E Key words artefacts and technological literacy. Indeed, as suggested R artefact, technical object, categorisation, learning, by Ineke and de Vries (2012), understanding the nature of technological education. technical artefacts is a relevant part of technological literacy. The specificity of technical artefacts has long The Mediation of Technical artefacts suffered from a lack of attention and reflection. In Oral and written language, texts, musical and scientific particular, the research has shown a limited interest in instruments are all example of artefacts. This concept, in technical objects and on the cognitive implications derived fact, encompasses several kinds of objects. They are by their social use (Andreucci, 1990, 2003, 2007; produced by human beings and serve as mediation Andreucci & Roux, 1992). Considering this perspective, between the subject and the environment (Vygotsky, the purpose of this article is to understand the relationship 1978). Several authors have stressed the social and experienced by students in the middle of technological cultural dimension of artefacts, particularly developed in literacy education at school. This relationship is influenced the framework of the activity theory (Engeström, Miettinen both by a cognitive dimension and by the learning & Punamaki, 1999; Leontiev, 1975). process. To understand this process, we present below a brief review of studies about the categorisation of artefacts French research has particularly focused on the concept of and specifically the French perspective on Technical a technical object (Andreucci & Ginestié, 2002; Cazenobe, objects. Then, we present the structure and the results of 1987; Mauss, 1936; Sigault, 1990). We can find different the survey conducted in a middle school in France. In our definitions that help to understand the specificity of this opinion this type of research has the potential to concept. An object is characterised as “technical” from the contribute to the debate around Technological curriculum moment it brings a technique. In other words, a technical and design of objects and their impact on social and work object brings an action that is traditionally effective and environments. with considerable (physical) effect (Haudricourt, 1988; Mauss, 1936; Séris, 1994; Sigault, 1990). Specifically, Categorisation of Technical objects Rabardel defines technical objects as "anything that has Knowledge is directly acquired through interaction with the undergone a transformation of human origin (...), which is world and concepts are understood as a distributed and ready to be used, developed in order to be part of flexible pattern of neural activation that recalls specific finalised activities1” (1995: 59). In fact, according to situations (Barsalou, 1999; Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). Ginestié (2011), the material nature of the object According to current literature, primary organization of our integrates a human intention of manufacture: it explicitly knowledge is not stable and abstract, hierarchical, or 1Original citation: « toute chose ayant subi une transformation, d'origine humaine (...), susceptible d'un usage, élaborée pour s'inscrire dans des activités finalisées 32 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school taxonomic, but is thematic and located, flexible and linked The research for this paper focussed on the specific field to contexts and situations (Borghi, 2002), with a central of cognition about the categorisation of technical objects. role of social dimensions. Indeed, there are multiple ways In French literature, specific research has been conducted to build categories and everyday reasoning is fluid and to understand the relationship between objects and dynamic, providing a qualitative activation of information organisation of technical knowledge of students. This (Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). Access to a given type of interest arises from the need to know more about the knowledge organisation is strongly mediated by the technical domain (Séris, 1994). In this way it is possible to contexts, experience and purpose of our actions (Barsalou, put order in the diversity around us and build relationships 1987; Borghi, 2002; Smith, 1995). As suggested by with other objects, starting from relationships and Solomon, Medin and Lynch (1999), categorisation is only knowledge already acquired. Among the different studies, one conceptual function among several and concepts Andreucci and Ginestié (2002) show that pupils (aged 12 serve multiple functions which interact with cognitive to 15) provide limited meaning to the concept of a structures and mental processes. Smith (2005) argues for technical object. The diversity of objects they categorised a dynamic systems approach to cognition: the continual under the concept of technical object decreased with age: coupling of cognition to the idiosyncrasies of the here and indeed, pupils tend to exclude from technical objects H now makes cognition relevant and provides the many artefacts like food products, clothes, and buildings. C mechanism for developmental change. These results were confirmed by Lasson (2007). R We present below our pilot study that was carried out in A To understand the classification of artefacts, a first step to order to understand how students relate to technical E consider is the distinction between living beings and non- objects from their environment. S E living things. In fact, many studies have been done on the R ability of children to make a distinction between living Study beings and non-living things (Inagaki & Hatano, 1996; Objective Kalish, 1998). The essential natural concepts are the The purpose of this exploratory study was to trace the internal and genetic properties that are not altered by relationship of students (aged 12-14 years old) with superficial changes; for artefacts, the perceptual properties technical objects that are part of everyday life, such as in are essential (Gelman & Wellman, 1991; Medin & Ortony, school, with family or with peers and mediated reality 1989). In addition, the research of Kalénine, Garnier, from textbooks, from schooling or media. In this way we Bouisson and Bonthoux (2007) shows that the search for wanted to explore three aspects related to: 1) General common functions generates progress in the categorisation understanding of technical characteristics of objects; 2) of artefacts but not in the categorisation of natural objects. Ability to make relationships between objects; and, 3) Also, as noted by Brandone and Gelman (2009), children Personal and direct use of technical objects. and adults produce more commonly generic noun phrases (e.g., birds fly) about animals than artefacts. Furthermore, Participants Rhodes and Gelman (2009) demonstrate that young The participants were 57 students aged between 12-14 children, like adults, view animal categories as natural years of age drawn from two different classes in two groupings, but artefact categories as more conventionalised. different schools. Technology education in France is compulsory for all the pupils from 3 to 15 years of age. In relation to the artefact categorisation, Malt and Sloman Specifically, at elementary level (3-11 years) scientific and (2007) suggest that the elements for the categorisation technological education is associated with guiding the are: physical features, current function, original function children in the discovery of the world in which they live. intended by the creator, category membership intended Later, for 12-15 year old students, technology education by the creator and features having a particular causal becomes a full school subject, oriented to convey the status with respect to other features. Specifically about existence of technical objects and the social organisations artefacts, Puebla and Chaigneau (2014) conclude that that produce and use them. when participants received complete information, they based their categorisation on individual properties and did Methodology not show evidence of using inference to categorise. In To develop this research it was decided to use a contrast, when the state of some property was not questionnaire with mainly closed questions. The observed, participants gave evidence of using available questionnaire is a method designed to collect information information to infer the state of the unobserved property, on the variables under investigation. Usually the which increased the value of the available information for categorisation of objects is carried out in small workshops categorisation. with a limited number of subjects or directly face-to-face Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 33 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school Item Not an object % Item An object % 1 Salad 90 1 Bike 90 2 Volcano 88 2 Scarf 86 3 Tulip 84 3 Sheet of paper 74 4 Boiled egg 76 4 Train 54 5 Nuclear power plant 70 6 Milk cow 70 7 Jam 66 8 Plane tree leaf 66 9 Home 58 10 Submarine 58 11 Bird's nest 50 H 12 Uranium 49 C R Table 1. Items classed as Not an object or Object A E S between the subject and the researcher. In this research, it Considering the length of the questionnaire, it was E was decided to use the questionnaire as a pilot for future administered in two sessions of about 20 minutes each. R extensive research. After the data collection, we have proceeded to the The short version of the questionnaire is reported in the analysis of the data, with a qualitative analysis of the Appendix. (The original version administered to the responses due to the limited number of participants. The students was in French). In line with our research percentage is given as an illustration of the type of objectives, the questionnaire was composed in three response rather than a generalisable result. sections and 18 questions, organised as follows: Results • Part I: detection of technical characteristics of objects The results are organised in three sections, following the (five questions); structure of the questionnaire above described. • Part II: ability to create relationships between objects (ten questions); Part I: Detection of technical characteristics • Part III: direct use of technical objects and personal In this first section we asked the participants to identify interest in the technical and scientific (three questions). and assign technical characteristics to a list of items that included technical objects but also animated and natural The specific questions for each part have been developed entities. in a process of tuning between research interests, the literature on artefacts and adaptation to the generic 1. Is it an object or not an object? didactic objectives of the curriculum of the French In the first question we asked the participant to identify if Technological Education in middle school. To improve the the item, at various levels of familiarity, is or is not an understanding of the students, it was decided to use object. The results show that for the majority of students images, which allow the reader to gain more immediate there is a consensus of over 50% on the collocation of understanding and did not penalise students who had not the items for the category Not an object or Object. In fully mastered reading skills. The images were selected on Table 1we present the items ranked in order of High to a criterion of representativeness, which would make the Low % for each category. main elements visible. Where possible the images selected come from French textbooks of Technological From this result, we see a gradation in the attribution of Education. All the items in each question were presented category object and not an object: 1) for some items, the in alphabetical order. The questionnaires were students are almost unanimous in their collocation, for administered manually to students in classes in a paper example Salad and Bike reach 90% of agreement in their version, directly by the teacher after school activities. collocation; 2) for some items the consensus is 34 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school Item Not living % Item Living % Item Virtual % 1 Wig 98 1 Flu virus 90 1 Avatar 96 2 Snowman 94 2 Coral 90 2 Cartoon 92 3 Frozen fish 84 3 Bacterium 84 4 Talking doll 74 4 Hair 62 5 Robot 64 6 Nails 48 7 Smileys 46 Table 2: Items classed as Living, Not living or Virtual intermediate, for example the train is placed as an object leaf, are not seen as objects by a majority of students, for 54%, for 34% as not an object and for 12% they respectively 90%; 84%; 74%; and 66 %. H don’t know; 3) finally for other items there is more C dispersion in the consensus. For example, Uranium finds a In the case of the egg that explanation would be a bit less R less clear collocation indicated by 49% as not an object; relevant, considering that we are talking of "hard-boiled A 15% an Object, and for the last 36% they do not know. egg”. Indeed, 10-12 years old students, for example, tend E to refuse the status of living thing to a cut flower or a dead S From this first initial investigation, we can see that the rabbit in the situation of a dichotomous classification like E classification becomes more uncertain for objects less tied "living" or "non-living" (Bardel & Triquet, 1998). However, R to the prototype of their category or more distant from the same study also shows that when the possibility to common experience. Also, if we consider technical object categorise these things as "dead" is given, this is the as anything that has undergone a transformation of option favoured by students. It seems, as well, that at least human origin (Rabardel, 1995), these first results show from this specific age the ontological status of being alive that students have a narrow view of the concept of object. is preserved to the biological beings, for which it is The usual technical artefacts such as a Bicycle, a Scarf and considered an invariant of an existential nature. In contrast, a Sheet of paper are undoubtedly considered as objects technical artefacts cease apparently to be considered as by the clear majority of students (respectively 90%, 86% such when their functionality vocation is compromised: and 74%), without giving rise to a full consensus. So far indeed, a broken vase is no longer a vase. we cannot doubt that the students know that these entities are human fabrications whose mode of existence It will be useful to take into consideration comparable data is tied to the function to which they must respond. We can from the point of view of the same level of categorisation also see that within the same class of technical artefacts about the natural and artificial objects categorisation. such as means of transport, some human fabrications are Despite the assumed belonging of the entities to two more difficult than others to be considered as objects. So distinct categories, the living and the non-living, it is the Bike seems to be a better representative of the interesting to see how children are able to find analogies concept of object than are Submarines (58%) or Trains and similarities between entities under both worlds. (54%). These entities could not be directly manipulated, due to their large size, which could explain this result. 2. Living, Not living or Virtual? Thus, it is likely that the mere mention of a train as “small In this second task, we present a list of names and electric” place it in the toy category, facilitating its corresponding to a living entity, not living or virtual and we membership as an object. ask to which category they belong. In Table 2 we present the items ranked in order of High to Low % for each Similarly, within the category of buildings, we observe that category. a Nuclear power plant, due probably to its highly technological nature, is easier to consider as an object Given the learning, started usually from the primary (70%) than a House (50%). But, in the same way, the school, about the classification of living entity, we find that fact that the buildings cannot be handled, transported or most students know that virus, coral, bacteria are part of empowered for direct action, makes these objects a poor the living world. However, we note that membership of representation of the concept of object. Meanwhile, the the living organic attributes such as Hair or Nails are much biological entities, like a Salad, a Tulip, an Egg, a Plane tree less evident. The first is considered by 62% to be living Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 35 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school Item Manufactured % Item Natural % leaves on trees, the petals for the flowers, and hair for animals, are more difficult to categorise for students. 1 Bleach 92 1 Rainwater 96 2 Glass 90 2 Corn 90 3. Is it natural or manufactured? 3 Carton 88 3 Honey 90 This third question investigates a further feature of a set of 4 Cement 86 4 Butter 80 items in relation to their natural or manufactured nature. In Table 3 the items ranked in order of High to Low % for 5 Plastic 82 5 Wool 74 the two categories are reported. 6 Rubber 68 6 Petroleum 74 7 Steel 70 7 Sugar 64 Overall, it appears that students have good knowledge of 8 GMO maize 70 8 Gasoil 56 the natural or manufactured substances and materials 9 Polyester 68 categorised. The elements that are more uncertain in this specific selection are Gasoil and Iron, considering also that 10 Iron 52 for Gasoil 20% of students do not know the answer. But, Table 3. Distinction between Natural and Manufactured in general it reaches a consensus greater than 50% for all H items presented. It may be noted, however, that among C and by 30% non-living; vice versa the Nail is considered the natural substances, some of them, like Rain water, R by 48% to be living and by 36% a non-living thing. This is Wheat, and Honey seem easier to consider instead of A probably due to the fact that school learning gives less E others, like Wool, Oil, and Sugar. This could be due to the reference to these entities. S fact that the natural character of the substances is less E obvious when it comes to materials that are presented to R Instead Avatar for 96% of all students is considering as us usually as processed products, like wool sweater, Virtual. Cartoons are also categorised as virtual objects by refined oil, granulated sugar. Again, therefore, this result 92% of students. Smileys and Robot are, however, placed should be investigated in our next work. most within the category of non-living (respectively 46% and 64%) and then to the virtual (4% and 34%). 4. To store, Transform, Distribute or Ineffective? Through the television, movie, Internet and video games In the following question we wanted to investigate if a or software that makes possible the creation of artificial certain number of items were perceived as objects that characters, the virtual and augmented realities are now store, transform, distribute or are without relation to parts of the culture of students. Robots due to their energy. In physics, energy is an abstract theoretical concrete materiality are regarded by student as real concept, with the fundamental property that it is concrete objects but not belonging to the world of the conserved. As demonstrated by several studies (Beynon, living, despite the fact that they are animated. 1990; Lee & Liu, 2010; Lemeignan & Weil-Barais, 1992) energy is a concept discontinuous from life-world In general, we can see how it is not always possible to experiences: the children’s conception “constructed from delineate the membership with definite borders, although everyday experiences are different from scientifically the category Living, Not living or Virtual are related to an accepted ideas and are very resistant despite formal essential feature in the understanding of an entity. It must teaching2” (Megalakaki, 2009, p. 14). be determined in a later work if this result arises because the physical organs or attributes of living beings, like the Item Stores % Item Distributes % Item Transforms % 1 Heat 55 1 Bulb 56 1 Electrical sander 40 2 Gas 40 2 Oil 47 3 Wood 38 3 Food 43 4 Solar Panels 38 4 Thermal Power 36 5 Batteries 37 5 Coal 33 6 Manure 33 Table 4. Stores, Transforms, Distributes or Ineffective item 2Original citation : « Ces conceptions, construites à partir des expériences quotidiennes sont différentes des idées scientifiquement acceptées et sont très résistantes malgré l’enseignement formel ». 36 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school In Table 4, we present the overall overview of the results old use. Below in Table 5 there is a summary of the for each items and respective higher frequency for each frequency from the total sample. category selected. From this analysis we can see that most of the objects are The results show that there is not a clear-cut position of known by the students with a total frequency of more students in allocating each element in a category. The than 50%. Interestingly, even the newest modern, but not highest value is in fact Bulb with 56% who say that it common items such as digital wristwatch have already distributes the energy and 31% of the students say that it entered into the common knowledge of new teenagers. transforms the energy. Less consent is for the item Coal Items less known in our specific sample of students were for which 33% of the students say that it distributes the the camera, the mechanical mixer and mechanical food energy. chopper: these items do not fit in everyday life today and do not have a typical form in the corresponding modern The results that emerge are generally distributed, objects whose current shape is digital or electrical. We can demonstrating the difficulty of the students to determine a consider how these obsolete items, now considered clear understanding of the relationship of each of the antiques and no longer direct utensils known by the H elements proposed with energy. In general, we consider students, were very popular less than half a century ago C that the teaching of energy is an essential topic, essential and they continue to be sold in common flea or specialist R in relationship with technical objects, proposed for markets. This result could be explained by the very little A teaching science through Science-Technology-Society space that the history of technical objects occupies in the E (STS) (Aikenhead, 1994). French curriculum of technological education. S E R 5. Known and Unknown Items At the end of this first section of the questionnaire, we In this question we presented a list of objects at various considered the technical reality that surrounds us, noted levels of familiarity such as objects of common, new and that it is not always possible to understand it directly for itself and human work reinforces this opacity (Martinand, N. Name Frequency 1996). This difficulty in reading technical Objects increases 1 Electric car (new) 96% if we consider technologically advanced objects despite the fact that they control more and more of our reality. An 2 Typewriter (old) 96% example is the actual revolution of the "Internet of 3 USB stick (current) 96% Things": it is the interconnection of uniquely identifiable embedded computing devices within the existing Internet 4 PC (old) 94% infrastructure, offering advanced connectivity of devices, 5 Phone (old) 96% systems, and services. Objects and technology are always 6 Digital wristwatch (new) 96% more related, as suggested by terms like “pervasive computing” and “embedded networked computing” or 7 Electronic cigarette (current) 94% “disruptive technology”. As such, they refer to devices and 8 Bluetooth headset (current) 94% technological solutions that are interconnected, that extend and create a different understanding of our 9 Balance 90% environment. Indeed, Barlex, Givens and Steeg (2013) 10 Iron (old) 88% propose the introduction of “disruptive technology” as an aspect of technology into the technology curriculum to 11 Record player (old) 86% help learners to engage in future-thinking and new 12 Ball of yarn (old) 86% affordances that the technology introduces. 13 Mechanical coffee grinder (old) 76% Part II: the Ability to create Relationships between Objects 14 Music mill (old) 74% For this section of the questionnaire, we started from the 15 Drone (new) 54% consideration that “Categorisation of real world objects is a fundamental adaptive behaviour that allows man to 16 Camera (old) 46% reduce the complexity of the physical and social 17 Mechanical mixer (old) 42% environment by organising it” (Bideaud and Houdé, 1989, p.88)”. The process of thematic categorisation that applies 18 Mechanical food chopper (old) 28% to group items on the basis of a common empirical Table 5. Known and unknown items meaning, e.g. the farm, the station, the circus, the forest, Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 37 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school N. Group of images Combination with the high occurrence % 1 Dragonflies, vulture, helicopter, airplane, hang-glider Helicopter, airplane, hang-glider 26 and windmill 2 Corkscrew, swing, nutcracker, elbow articulation, Corkscrew, nutcracker, scissors 40 scissors, wheelbarrow 3 Sun, thermal power, food products, nuclear power Hydraulic power, thermal power plant, nuclear 53 plant, hydraulic power, firewood power plant 4 Mobile phone, radio device, X-ray image, bat, Mobile phone, radio devise, satellite transmission 39 microwave oven, satellite transmission 5 Sheep, silk worms, cotton field, flax field, automatic Sheep, cotton field, silkworms 14 power loom, cashmere scarf 6 Plastic container, metal canned food, paper bag, Plastic container, metal canned food, glass bottles 18 H glass bottles, carton packaging, cream jars C 7 Block of butter, cheese, jar of jam, cow, bottle of Butter, cheese, milk 39 R milk, slice of bread A 8 Flashlight, bedside lamp, flashlight, streetlight, gas- Flashlight, bedside lamp, hand lamp, streetlight, 21 E discharge lamp, candle gas-discharge lamp, candle S E 9 Electrical sander, washing machine, flat iron, vacuum Washing machine, iron, vacuum cleaner 20 R cleaner, electric stove, electric drill 10 Wasp’s nest, teepee, igloo, straw hut, termite mound, Teepee, igloo, straw house 51 nest of weaver birds Table 6. Classification of different items actually allows students to group a wide variety of entities of images proposed with the respective combination with such as for the farm: a tractor, barn, haystack, pig. The high occurrence. construction of these thematic categories precedes that of taxonomic classes based on the recognition of common The following section provides details of each properties to their members. For example, for the birds we combination proposed: have the properties of flying, having wings, having 1) Use of air for movement:in the first example, we feathers, a beak; for the clothes we use them to dress, presented images linked together by the use of the air for and they are made of fabric. Therefore, we attribute an movement, Dragonflies, Vulture, Helicopter, Aircraft, Hang- indefinite name for the generalisation of the category, like glider and Windmill. The combination most frequently “it's a bird; it’s clothes”. However, the ability that children experienced was the one that put together the aircraft have to mix these two types of categorisations to find a (26%), excluding the two items related to the animal relationship between natural and artificial objects remains kingdom and the Windmill. So, the objects made for the more complex. specific purpose of flight or affiliated to the class of transportation were put together. No student has In this second part, we examine the classification of suggested the combination of all six images on the basis different items and examine the possible relationships of a common aerodynamic principle. between them, considering that knowledge is organised in naive consistent theories (Carey, 1985, 1991; Keil, 1992). 2) The principle of the lever:the second task required In addition, studies on the conceptual development show students to identify a grouping of a set of six items, that the acquisitions are dependent on the field (Wellman Corkscrew, Swing, Nutcracker, Elbow articulation, Scissors, & Gelman, 1998). In each task six images were presented, Wheelbarrow, connected to each other in a generic way by which included a representative picture and a tag with its the lever principle. In this case, the choice that prevailed name. In the results we present only the most frequent was related to the context of everyday life. Indeed all the combination proposed by the students. The rest of the items can be found in a context like the kitchen. Only 4% combinations have lower frequencies and are therefore of the students have linked all images together, showing not reported. In Table 6 there is a summary of the groups that they had identified a relationship between them. No 38 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school answer was provided by 9% of students. Considering the 7) Dairy production:in this case six objects related to total number of students that have suggested a group dairy production were presented: a block of butter, a excluding the elbow (53%), this demonstrates the cheese, a jar of jam, a cow, a bottle of milk, a slice of difficulty in relating natural and artificial objects or to group bread. It was thought that a number of students here technical artefacts that have very different functions. would tend to associate butter, jam and bread achieving a thematic class like ‘breakfast’. But no student proposed 3) Energy:in this case, the six selected pictures were this specific composition. On the contrary, we observed related with the concept of energy: Sun, Thermal power, that the grouping of the three most common objects is Food products, Nuclear power plant, Hydraulic power, the one that corresponds to the three dairy products Firewood. In this case, the most frequent choice was the (butter, cheese, milk). The grouping that appeared most putting together of the three plants manufactured by relevant was not the one that corresponded to the process humans to produce energy, excluding the natural of categorisation according to the event schemas and elements. No answer was provided by 9% of the students scripts proposed by some authors (Mandler, 1984; while only 5% made the connection between all images. Nelson, 1988; Schank & Abelson, 1977). Rather than grouping together foods which are usually eaten but have H 4) Waves:here we identified images linked together by no link between them from the point of view of their C the generic principle of waves and radiation: Mobile composition, it seemed more appropriate for students to R phone, Radio device, X-ray image, Bat, Microwave oven, group products that have the same origin. Moreover, 56% A Satellite transmission. of students excluded the cow from their combinations E group which reflected the difficulty in associating entities S The highest frequency of grouping was linked explicitly belonging to different orders (living and non-living) even E R with the transmission waves. In fact, they are all equipped when, as here, the industrial products give their existence with antenna in the representation provided. We do not to the biological entity. know if this grouping is based on the transmission function of the information or the presence of the 8) Lamps:in this specific case, it was decided not to common physical attribute. In this case, only 2% found a include the object names to avoid suggesting the explicit link between all the elements and 85% of the students semantic combinations. The six pictures presented were: made a group excluding the bat, the only animal provided an electric light, a bedside lamp, a flashlight, a streetlight, a in the group. It is not clear if this is due to the lack of gas-discharge lamp, a candle. In this case, 21% of knowledge on the specificity of the bat or just because it is students found a link between all the objects. 61% of an animal unlike the other objects provided. students ruled out the candle from the grouping, considering it non-electric and less complex than the other 5) Handicraft:in this case, we provided images related to items. textile production: Sheep, Silk worms, Cotton field, Flax field, Automatic power loom, Cashmere scarf. In this 9) Electronic items:in this case, we presented six images grouping we find the highest dispersion of combinations: of everyday technical artefacts related to domestic 26 for a total of 50 students. There is not a clear appliances and more precisely to the household: an dominant category. In fact the highest (only 14%) electrical sander, a washing machine, an iron, a vacuum comprised the first three images, the Sheep, cotton field, cleaner, an electric stove and an electric drill. The most silkworms. However, this was a high percentage of frequent combination of three objects is for washing students in respect to other combinations in this task machine, iron and vacuum cleaner. 50% of students (11%) who found a link between all the items, probably made a link between all objects linked by their domestic because the natural and artificial items have a clear use and not as a result of their electrical functioning. common feature namely textile production. Presumably because for the students these objects are necessarily electric devices and they don’t know the 6) Objects from recycling: the objects gathered here were precedent mechanical version, for example, manual all technical artefacts. It included packages made from grinder, hand drill, brooms. different materials: Plastic container, Metal canned food, Paper bag, Glass bottles, Carton packaging, Cream jars. It 10) Home and shelters: here the six pictures concerned can be considered that they all belong to the category of the following objects: a wasp’s nest, a teepee, an igloo, a containers or garbage. There isn’t a clear prevalence of a straw hut, a termite mound, a nest of weaver birds. If we dominant category. In this case, 16% of students found a consider that only the human made objects are technical link between all images. artefacts, students could combine the three human Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 39 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school Item > 2hours use % Item Motivation in learning % Item Interest % Technological subject 1 Smartphone 36 1 Discovery of reality 65 1 Technology 40 Table 7. Use of technology and interests habitats in opposition to the natural and animals’ habitats. problematic phenomena they refer to. This mode of But if students do not take into account the innate or generalisation has very different potential because it acquired technical behaviour accompanying the brings subjects to think dialectically about their practices, manufacturing of objects, they have tended to group them to establish connections with many other phenomena all because they all have the same social function. We that initially remained in shade because they looked H observe here that the majority of students (51%) different, to explain this systemic constellation of C considered that only human habitats have a common problematic phenomena, and to construct new solutions R feature and that only 21% combined all the items. So, it (p. 587). A seems that a common property of the social function is E not sufficient to gather animals and made objects. S E In the science curriculum, classification of living beings R From this second part of the questionnaire, we see that refers to a widely known, prior and scientifically the students show certain flexibility in the categorisation of established knowledge. In contrast, technology education data, considering that they do not use the same often focuses on specific objects without worrying about systematic indices to perform their grouping. In general, a the generality of knowledge taught. Technology education functional and contextual categorisation is more activated should not be on restrictive knowledge that is applicable by the students. We can consider the activation of only to a small number of specific artefacts. Learning different logics: empirical generalisation (classification), should be generalised and transferred in a relevant way to through observation or identifying superficial features, and gain some cultural value. theoretical generalisation (identification) through experimentation and transformation, of the genetic origins Part III: Use of technology and personal perception of phenomena that may be quite different. In this section, we have developed three questions related to different aspects: 1) the time that students spend using We recall here the study of Luria and Yudovich (1971) on some technological object related to the school and the classification tasks consisting in the assembly of house contexts for formal and informal learning; 2) the objects such as a tree, a saw, and an axe. Generically, in importance of learning a technology subject; 3) generic Western culture, a saw and an axe belong to the category students’ interest in scientific and technological subjects. of tools, and the tree to the category of plants. In Table 7 provides a summary of the main results for the Uzbekistan with illiterate participants all items are posted three questions. in the same category (one needs a saw and an axe to cut a tree), considering the systemic functional connection Regarding the first question it appears that the use of the between them. As noted by Sannino (2010), in this case smartphone is the most common (more than two hours it used a formal logical or empirical generalisation per day for 36% of students and at least one hour for however, if one aims at genetic or theoretical 27% of them) followed by the use of the internet (2 generalisation, one has to identify a basic functional hours by day for 23% of subjects and between 30 connection, also called a “germ cell”, between the minutes and one hour for 50% of them. From the second phenomena: question, the awareness of the importance of science literacy as an opportunity for the discovery of reality Categorisation of problematic phenomena within (65%) was the majority choice. The link between the empirical generalisation might be useful for a while as study of technological objects and future professional an intermediate analytical step, but that is not enough if choices remains relatively low (26% of answers). From the subjects aim at changing their practices. Subjects this, it appears that student do not realise the importance have to look for generating mechanisms behind the of technical and scientific training for their professional 40 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 Technical Objects Between Categorisation and Learning: An exploratory case study in French middle school future. Finally, we asked the students to indicate their In general, the pilot survey brings us back to the interest in scientific and technological disciplines. The importance of handling and knowledge of the technical analysis shows that the most interesting for them was thus objects from “inside”, allowing a practical familiarisation ranked: 1) greatest interest was in technology; 2) average through experimentation, observation and manipulation. interest was for physics and chemistry; biology, geology Considering this perspective, our survey is intended to and astronomy; 3) lowest interest, computer science. clarify the current discussion on the redefinition and From this third session, we can see the strong contrast reorganisation of the common core acquisitions for 12 to that emerges between the great use of technology and 14 years old pupils (Lebeaume, 2011). The French the lower interest for computer science: paradoxically, the national program called the “The common base of new technological object with which they spend more knowledge” promoted an updating of technological time during the day constitutes the subject least curriculum, in continuity between college and high school, interesting in formal learning. Probably, the computer and with a stronger contextualised approach. The trend is science is for them an area to explore directly and to use different methods of analysis, design and practically, making more valuable use of the formal implementation, allow the children to plan own work, learning provided by the school. searching multiple solutions to the same process. H C Discussion For a more general theoretical perspective we can R This paper takes into consideration the technical object by consider that the nature of artefacts is basically embedded A the subjective experience of students between 12 and 14 in dualism (Kroes & Meijers, 2006; Vaccari, 2013). As E years. This first study is exploratory in purpose. The results pointed out in English but also in French literature (Akrich, S concern a limited population of students and need to be 1987; Cazenobe, 1987; Haudricourt, 1988; Inheldher & E R tested with a larger sample. The results indicated that the Cellerier, 1992; Simondon, 1958) technical artefacts as relation of subject with technical object is complex, such are "mixed" in the sense that they combine scientific considering the complexity of our environment. properties, physical, chemical, geometrical, that characterise the material objects in the margins of the From Part I we observe that the concept of object itself specific social nature of properties related to their intent, has a restrictive meaning for 12-14 years old children. This their design, their production, their use and, also, their way result goes against the very generic definition that many of deterioration and recycling - generating significant authors give to the artefact concept. Apparently, big, static problems in our consumerist societies. and not directly manipulable artefacts are not easily considered as objects. We find also that living entities are The intervention of technological education should help to also bad representations of the concept of object. It change and improve the “meeting” of students with the appears that it is not enough that a biological entity is technical objects by inserting it in a context ascribed to the transformed by man for it to be seen as an object. So, a production, to the world of work and the technical fortiori, we can think that biological beings from industrial process. This investigation leads us to consider how to production are difficult to assimilate as technical objects. organise the meeting with technical objects and how to These first results show however that the natural character incorporate them into a process of sense making. The way of some substances (wool, oil, sugar) is less obvious artefacts are presented in education should be such that when it comes to materials that are presented to us pupils learn to recognize characteristics of the artefacts usually as manufactured products. In Part II we can also that are not specific to one particular artefact, but that see many difficulties for children in finding common relate to the nature of all technical artefacts. For example, points between natural and artificial objects even when the understanding of the concept of "volume" has always the industrial products give their existence to the biological been by several approaches (like, physical, psychologists). entities. Grouping technical artefacts is also non obvious But, in regard to technical artefacts, it is not the volume when they refer to different social functions despite having but the “bulkiness” that makes sense in terms of the the same physical and operative principle. Students show practical activity like the storage of artefacts. Consequently, certain flexibility in the categorisation of objects in the as a result of many technical properties (telescopic, sense that they do not use the same systematic indices to foldable, deflatable, nested objects) children construct the perform their grouping. However generally, they fail to find idea of space being taken up by material entities as a one- epistemic analogies for group objects that also have many dimensional variable and unstable size and quantity different properties. Part III reveals the low interest before as a three-dimensional quantity and physical and students have for design and technology education and geometric invariant. the moderate one for scientific education. Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 41