What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers Alison Hardy, Nottingham Trent University Abstract subject as defined by national curricula, its subsequent Some who read and research about Design & Technology interpretation by trainees and D&T teachers, and the (D&T) would say that the concept of value is key to espoused values in articles written by renowned D&T understanding and defining D&T. Closer inspection reveals academics presents to the wider world a confused picture though that there are two ways in which values are defined of the value of D&T (Hardy 2013, Wright 2008). in D&T: how values are taught and learnt about in D&T to Furthermore this process of clarifying, delivering and use them to make judgments in D&T lessons, and also interpreting D&T is cyclical. New curriculum impacts on how values are developed in pupils as a result of studying new classroom interpretations leading to new research, D&T. Layton’s seminal keynote speech is the notable which has consequences – one of which maybe the cycle exception to these two classifications. In 1992 he shared a itself. A new curriculum proposal for D&T in English primary new perspective of values and D&T: how different and secondary schools (Department of Education 2013a) H stakeholders value the school subject D&T (1992a). revealed the confusion some people have about the C purpose of D&T. As schools are now the primary leaders of R The work presented here builds on Layton’s ‘new’ teacher training in England this timely research compares A perspective and compares how two D&T stakeholder how two stakeholder groups value D&T, aiming to provide E groups value D&T. The opinions of trainee D&T teachers some insight into why they have these values and the S E and D&T academics, both directly affected by these consequences of holding them. R changes were analysed using a grounded theory coded method. This resulted in a series of twenty-two values that There are five parts to this paper: context, method, method facilitated comparison of the two group’s values. Further of analysis, results and discussion. Firstly the context analysis revealed there were many similarities between the discusses why this research is needed. The second section two groups, and only a few differences. However these explains the method used to select the participants and how differences showed the trainees did not believe D&T can the data were collected. In the third section the method of be about the process of designing or identifying the needs analysis is explained in detail. As values are a subjective, of others, both values central to the original purpose of qualitative phenomenon and how they have been mined D&T in England and recognised by the academics. from the data is central to the discussion the results are presented in two formats: ranking the values within the two One implication for this, as schools take more ownership participant groups and comparing the two group’s values; of teacher training, is that the value of D&T is likely to their similarities and differences. The discussion section move further away from the D&T academics’ influence and presents suggestions for why these similarities and be based upon the ‘spontaneous’ (Dow 2014, p.151) differences exist and possible effects; it concludes with values developed through classroom practice with little some thoughts on how the values series presented in this reference to external opinion. paper could be used by others and their limitations. Future work could widen the scope of the research, Context incorporating the values of other stakeholder groups into Values and Design and Technology Education the values series and hence become a new tool to support In sociology and psychology the concept of value is the development of design and technology education, measured and used to reveal how the interdependency of which hopefully will benefit others as they reflect on why human values and attitudes impacts on behavior (Hiltin they teach, research or use D&T. and Piliavin 2004). Within these two disciplines many base their understanding of a value on Rokeach’s definition: “a Key words value is an enduring belief,…a standard or criterion for value, design, technology, values, National Curriculum, guiding action, for maintaining and developing attitudes stakeholders towards relevant objects and situations….” (1968, p.160). But in D&T the concept of ‘value’ has been primarily used Introduction in relation to subject content, pedagogy and outcomes: ‘Why do we teach design and technology?’ seems a simple opening question to ask new trainee teachers, but it is less • Layton identifies that there are different kinds of values straightforward to answer. The changing nature of the that pupils need to learn about and be able to use when 10 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers A value is an individual’s concept of the consequence of a person ACTION OUTCOME { being educated in } D&T lessons that { mode of behaviour } becoming educated in there is a preferred type of activity Figure 1. Mapping sentence to define a value of D&T making judgments, such as technical values, economic from Rokeach. However Rokeach’s definition applies to the values and moral values (1992b, p.36); values human’s hold and this paper is investigating the • Prime (1993) suggests there should be ‘teaching and values humans have towards an object, which is the learning of values in technology education’ because subject D&T; therefore the stipulative definition used here ‘every new technology involves questions of ethics and brings together these two aspects, a person’s internal values’ (p.30); values and their values towards an object. Figure one H • Trimingham (2008) demonstrates how internal and shows the definition as a mapping sentence (Shye (1985) C external values are used by pupils when making design in Schwartz and Bilsky 1990) with two facets of value R decisions; (action and outcome). A E • Dakers (2005) argues that the ‘formation [development] S of values relating to the technologically mediated world So this paper is looking for the values stakeholders have of E we inhabit’ (p.124) should be part of D&T education; D&T, whilst recognising that these values might be R • Keirl asks trainee teachers (2007) whether developing synonymous with the two types of values found within D&T. pupils’ ability to recognise the values within a technology and make value judgments about technology is part of The stakeholder’s values could derive from their D&T; he does answer these questions in other writing observation or perception of a person’s behavior or activity (2012, 2014); (their own or someone else’s) that results from learning D&T (now or in the past). The subject name D&T is used Martin (1999) would probably define all of these uses as in this definition to encompass all previous subject names ‘values within’ D&T (p.202), but analysis reveals that they as some of the stakeholders could have been at school are either: before the inception of D&T in the 1990 National Curriculum, or attended school in another country. • Values in D&T: where pupils learn about values in D&T Returning to the argument from Rokeach that by holding a and use them in D&T activity (Layton 1992b, Prime particular value there are behaviors and attitudes that the 1993, Trimingham 2008) or holder of the value might have has merit in the two final • Values developed through D&T: How a pupil becomes contexts of this paper. Firstly the changing purpose of D&T technologically literate as a consequence of studying D&T as viewed by stakeholders since its inception in 1990 (Dakers 2005, Keirl 2007). (Hardy 2013, Martin 2013, Wright 2008) and secondly the changes to the ownership of teacher training moving from However Layton (1992a) recognised that there was an universities to schools. additional perspective to values in D&T: Historical development of D&T ‘If some views on values and technology appear to you D&T is a comparatively new subject in England, coming as the only possible ones, take this as a sign that you into being as a single subject in 1990 and drawing have neither understood the relationship of values and together diverse areas such as home economics, technical technology, nor the reason why an understanding of this drawing, sewing, and craft, design and technology (CDT). is important.’ (p.1) Since the first National Curriculum in 1990 there have been four National Curriculum reviews in 1993, 1999, Layton presents his new perspective not as values within 2005 and 2012, resulting every time in changes to either D&T but how the values systems of stakeholders involved content, assessment, or both. in the ‘socio-political shaping of school technology’ (p,3) influence design and technological activity. This brings us Each review has led to a new curriculum (for a detailed back full circle to the definition of a value stated earlier timeline of these versions see Wakefield and Owen- Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 11 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers Jackson 2013) and consequently those who are now already from Layton (1992a), he identified five categories: involved in influencing and shaping the subject today could economic functionalists, professional technologists, women have experienced the curriculum in different ways. As a result and liberal educators. Whilst these groups still have of its history and subsequent changes, it can be hypothesized relevance today, in the context of this paper their that stakeholders in D&T have different definitions of its pertinence is not as strong as those who are involved in identity and value, which may manifest as a lack of D&T education. Also his categories do not provide a simple understanding between the different stakeholder groups. method of comparison or classification of a wide number of stakeholders. Consequently a theory from business is Martin (2013) takes an autoethnographic approach to used here to categorise stakeholders in education to explore the ‘history of the (D&T) curriculum [by] determine whether and why they are relevant to this study. era…defining the essential characteristics/ feature of the Following Mitchell, Agle and Wood’s (1997) theory for time’ (p.318). Martin’s five eras are: making, personalising, identifying stakeholders, the definition of education designing, manufacturing and valuing. These eras are stakeholders used here is determined as those who derived from the author’s lived experience and it is beyond possess, or are attributed with possession of, one, two, or the scope of this paper to explore their accuracy in relation all three of the attributes: power, legitimacy, and urgency H to other literature, but Martin provides an interesting starting (derived from Mitchell, Agle and Wood p.872). The two C point for the argument that the era a stakeholder stakeholder groups selected for comparison are trainee R A experienced (was taught, learnt, trained teachers, was a D&T teachers and D&T academics. They have different E D&T advisor, and so on) could influence their behavior and attributes providing one justification for comparing them as S attitudes towards D&T and consequently their value of D&T. well as their aptness because of their contrasting E perspectives on D&T, with one group at the start of their R Changes to teacher training careers and the other established in their careers. Changes to teacher training are significant because prior to 2011 Initial Teacher Training (ITT) partnerships were led by Of the three stakeholder attributes the academics have all universities; government changes have transposed this three: power evidenced by representatives from this group partnership power as the preferred ITT model now is for being involved in the rewriting of the National Curriculum schools to lead and run ITT with optional university and also through their published work, urgency because if involvement. Historically it has been university based the subject is removed from the curriculum their positions teacher trainers and educators who have written, in academia become untenable, which is demonstrated by researched and informed changes to the curriculum but as closures of some university based teacher training for D&T, more universities close their teacher training departments and legitimacy provided by their history and experience this expertise will diminish to the extent that they may be within the subject. left with little power to influence how and why D&T is taught. The trainee teachers have only weak legitimacy as novices in the teaching profession and subject but they do have As D&T and ITT in England goes through more changes by power because of their future role in the classroom. Their understanding the values held about D&T by different power is immediate because of their potential to show stakeholders it may be possible to understand attitudes how this subject is developed in schools They also have and behaviours towards the subject and any resulting urgency because they need D&T to be taught in schools conflicts similar to those revealed by the events of 2013. for them to have a purpose to their training. Method Other studies have focused on stakeholders who are D&T Stakeholders: selecting the participants established D&T teachers or those close to the organisation In the context of this power shift and new curriculum this of it, such as STEM teachers, principals, guidance paper compares how stakeholder groups affected by these counselors (Hamilton and Middleton 2002, Hill, Wicklein changes value D&T. There are many different stakeholders and Daugherty 1996), but those at the start of their D&T of education, each with different influences and roles to teaching careers and those who shape their training are play in relation to the aims of education, curriculum and rarely compared. How the values of new D&T teachers are school subjects (Keirl 2007). Choosing which to compare shaped and changed has been debated (for example Dow involves selection based on stakeholder categorisation. The 2014) and much has been written about the value of D&T categorisation of different stakeholders has been discussed (see: Barlex 2011, Keirl 2007, Wakefield and Owen- in business theory but rarely within education. One Jackson 2013), but a comparison of how these two groups exception to this in D&T is the seminal work mentioned value D&T has not been made before. 12 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers Data collection methods thirty minutes. Each interview began with an explanation of To find the values the two groups held they articulated the research being conducted and asked each participant their opinion about what they believed the value of D&T why they thought D&T should be taught in schools. was to pupils and society. The obvious limitations to this Throughout the interview unplanned questions were asked approach is the participants can choose to share only what and comments made which allowed for an exploration of they are willing to reveal; this was addressed by including the participants’ views, encouraging them to elaborate on more than one participant from each group as different their narrative. The fluidity of this active interview method people will hide and reveal different aspects of themselves. was considered to be appropriate as values of a personal nature and responses could not always be anticipated, The four academics were well established in their field with therefore ruling out a more structured interview (Holstein publications about D&T in international journals and books. and Gubrium 1995). Three were based in the UK, working at English universities and had taught on teacher training courses (but not the This was a pilot study exploring whether the values of one attended by the trainees), the fourth was from stakeholders could be collected through using these two Australasia. They were selected for interview based on their data collection methods. H publishing profile, role in training D&T teachers and C accessibility. Three of the academics were male and one Method of Analysis R female, all have been writing and working within The analysis method is based on a grounded theory A technology education during most of the National coding technique from Auerbach and Silverstein (2003), E Curriculum changes. S which they describe as taking small steps up a staircase E moving from a ‘lower to a higher level of understanding R The thirteen trainees were studying at an English university, …(of) your research concern’ (p.35). The research eight female trainees and five male; they were either in presented here is not based in the methodology of their final year of a three-year undergraduate teacher- grounded theory but as the subjective values held by the training programme or on a one-year postgraduate two groups are unknown and therefore what, if any, programme, successful completion of which qualifies them similarities and differences between the two groups’ values to teach D&T in secondary schools. exist, this inductive method of investigation is appropriate. There are three phases in Auerbach and Silverstein’s All of the trainees, with one exception, attended secondary coding method: ‘Making the text manageable’, ‘Hearing school after the introduction of the National Curriculum. what was said’ and ‘Developing theory’ (p.43). To enable The academics have been involved in D&T education, this process the computer analysis software MAXQDA has either as a teacher trainer, researcher or D&T teacher, been used. during the same period. In the first phase the research concern and theoretical Work published by all four academics was included as part framework determine which text is relevant text. As has of the programmes’ reading list, which potentially been stated earlier this research is concerned with how the influenced the values held by the trainees. value of the subject of D&T is seen by different stakeholder groups as teacher education and the D&T curriculum goes Data collection happened differently for the two groups. At through a period of change. The theoretical framework for the start of their course, after an introductory talk by the the research is social constructivist, that is a person’s values author, the trainees wrote a 1000-word rationale explaining are derived and influenced by those in a position of their beliefs about why D&T belonged in the school authority in relation to the entity being valued as well as a curriculum. They were guided to literature, which was person’s lived history in relation to the entity; in this recommended by the author, to support their views; one research lecturers and teachers are likely to influence or academic participant wrote one of these recommended shape the values of the trainees as well as their personal pieces, but the trainees’ writing was primarily based on their experiences of D&T. Informed by this context and own views and constructed from their reflections on my talk. framework relevant text judged to be an example of a value was coded (note: Auerbach and Silverstein call these The academics were interviewed face to face; three were ‘ideas’). For example from the sentence ‘D&T is interviewed whilst at an international Technology Education everywhere; it is such a diverse subject which can create conference, which may have influenced the values many opportunities such as future employment prospects’ articulated in the interviews, and the fourth was the text ‘future employment prospects’ was selected as interviewed at home. The interviews all lasted less than relevant. Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 13 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers In the second phase, the selected text was grouped into as related to children’s activity in the present, ‘create in themes, which were labeled where possible with an many exciting ways’ and ‘freedom to be creative’. Most of excerpt from the original text minimising overlaying the the others focused on creativity being a purpose for interpretation of participants’ values with my own values children today, for example D&T being an ‘opportunity for and personal D&T history as a teacher and teacher children to think creatively’. Two saw creativity as being a educator (Alvesson and Skoldberg 2009). This process skill for the future: in D&T pupils could ‘[become] creative was used for the two groups separately and the main thinkers’ and were learning ‘creative [skills]’. findings are reported in the next section. Theme 2: developing personal skills The third phase, ‘Developing theory’, brought together the In terms of the trainees thinking about the place D&T had themes from both groups into a series of abstract for developing a pupil’s character and qualities, ten trainees concepts. The definition of a value in Figure 1. was used to thought this was significant, making it the second most validate the consistency of these concepts. This commonly occurring theme. Here they considered that by compilation resulted in a series of values of D&T consisting doing D&T in school the pupils would learn skills, such as of twenty-two discrete value statements (see Table 1), the ‘importance of following instructions’, ‘form(ing) their H which is used later to explore and discuss the similarities own opinions’, ‘problem solving and advanced logic’ and C and differences between the two groups. This reductive ‘develop useful decision-making and development skills’. R A approach to analysis and comparison corresponds with These are transferrable skills, not necessarily unique to D&T E pragmatic justification for comparing values rather than but soft skills of the type looked for by many employers. S attitudes from Rokeach that a person has fewer values Others were more vague in explaining what personal E than attitudes (1968). qualities and characteristics developed by doing D&T, R mentioning it gave opportunity for ‘developing the minds Analysis Phases one and two: Finding group’s different [of young people]’ and ‘developing personal qualities’. themes about D&T’s purpose Comparison between the two groups’ themes at this level Theme 3: making a product of worth is difficult due to the small number of academics For nine trainees making a product, and in particular interviewed compared to the number of trainees, so the making their own products, was a key purpose of D&T. results presented in this section were chosen for reporting What the pupils would gain from this experience was the because they were the most common themes by number ‘finished useful product’, the ‘visual representation of their of participants not the theme’s frequency of occurrence, achievements and hard work’. In doing this children would which could be skewed due to the larger number of have opportunity to go through a process to ‘meet human trainees. Below the four highest-ranked themes from both needs’, use tools, and ‘manipulate materials’. One student groups are discussed in turn. Nineteen themes from the sums up this theme by stating D&T was where pupils were academics and twenty-four from the trainees were ‘injecting their own personality into every piece of work identified. that they produce’. Trainees highest-ranked themes Theme 4: we are all users of technology therefore we Of the twenty-four trainee themes the four most common should all be able to understand it themes were mentioned by nine or more participants: Nine trainees believed D&T would help ‘prepare children freedom to be creative and innovative, developing for their future’ to be ‘responsible citizens who make a personal skills, making a product of worth, and ‘we are all positive contribution to society’, pupils were ‘a user of users of technology therefore we should all be able to technology therefore they should all be able to understand understand it’. it’. Comments did not mention a specific technology, suggesting the trainees had a vague understanding of Theme 1: freedom to be creative and innovative different types of technology (de Vries 2012), but implied Twelve of the thirteen trainees identified creativity as being a focus on D&T helping children to become ‘informed a key purpose of D&T. ‘Creative’, or derivations of, was used users’ and producing citizens that were ‘critical, political by ten of these students, with the other two using the [and] free-thinking’. Many of the comments were similar to synonyms ‘imagination’ and ‘freedom’. These two one of the National Curriculum’s overarching aims: ‘The explained that D&T provided ‘freedom to explore ideas’ or National Curriculum provides pupils with an introduction to ‘freedom to be creative’, both aspects of creativity. One of the essential knowledge that they need to be educated the trainees mentions creativity as being important for a citizens.’ (Department of Education 2013b, p.6), which pupil after school, ‘create ideas…for the future’, and as well suggests again this theme might not be unique to D&T. 14 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers Academics highest-ranked themes Theme 2: acting on the world Secondly, the highest-ranked four from the academics, both in Although only two academics highlighted this as a purpose terms of frequency of occurrence and number of participants, of D&T between them it was mentioned nine times. Their was ‘learning using brains and hands’, ‘acting on the world’, view was that because of D&T pupils would be able to ‘learning skills and techniques’ and ‘creating things’. make a ‘better world’, ‘improve the world’ and do ‘something for society as a whole’. One explained that Theme 1: learning using brains and hands children would be able to ‘design things so they are may In contrast to the trainees first theme about creativity the be more economical, they use less fuel, less energy to academics highest-ranking theme was about learning. In produce them’. For these two academics D&T was about their view there is a unique way of learning in D&T that developing a ‘can do mentality’ attitude, so the subject was gives the subject a value to being part of a school part of a ‘democratic curriculum’. curriculum: ‘a minds on as well as hands on’. The cognitive process the pupils are engaged in was significant to the Theme 3: learning skills and techniques academics, ‘that coordination between brain and hands to Again only two academics mentioned this as a value of the extent that you're problem solving continually into what D&T, one of them once and the other on four occasions. H it is that you are trying to make’, the communication of the The skills referred to are similar to the personal skills theme C mind with paper as designs were created and developed. from the trainees: ‘transferrable skills’ and ‘communication R One asserted that the brain was working differently by skills’. A pupils doing D&T: ‘certain parts of their brain work that E other subjects don’t allow to work’. S E R Values (abstract concepts) Academics Trainees Instrumental values 1 Activity of designing ✓ 2 Alternative to academic subjects ✓ 3 Designing for future needs and opportunities ✓ ✓ 4 Examination and questioning of the made world ✓ 5 Freedom to take risks and experiment ✓ ✓ 6 Helps the understanding of human beings' position & existence ✓ ✓ 7 Identifying problems to be solved ✓ 8 It is fun and enjoyable ✓ ✓ 9 Learn from evaluating personal success and failure ✓ ✓ 10 Learning happens through using brains and hands together ✓ ✓ 11 Meaningful activity of solving real problems with real solutions ✓ ✓ 12 Personal ownership of decisions and actions ✓ ✓ 13 Provides a practical purpose for other school subjects ✓ 14 Using raw materials to make a product ✓ ✓ Terminal values 15 Become aware of the economic impact of technological developments ✓ ✓ 16 Considers the ethics of technological development ✓ ✓ 17 Contributes to the nation's industrial and economic competitiveness ✓ 18 Develops the skill of creativity ✓ ✓ 19 Develops the skills of autonomy and collaboration ✓ 20 Empowers society to act to improve the world ✓ ✓ 21 Learn practical life skills ✓ 22 Learning of vocational skills and techniques that open doors to careers ✓ ✓ Table 1: Comparing values of D&T academics and trainee teachers by type Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 15 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers Theme 4: creating things Whilst it is not claimed here that these values are the The academics’ fourth theme, that D&T gives pupils the definitive values of D&T they do help to explain how and opportunity of ‘creating things’, and doing ‘something that why the two groups have these values and where they is in us all, which is enjoying creating things;’ is similar to might derive from; pragmatically they also facilitate the trainees idea that D&T was valuable because pupils comparison and analysis of the values of the two groups. were ‘making a product of worth’. But there are differences. The academics focused on the creation of a product and The values have been organised in two ways: by type using materials to do this (both processes) whereas the (Table 1) and by classification (Table 2); both will be used trainees were focused on the end product (the outcome). to explore the results. Analysis Phase three: Developing a theoretical framework The two types of values are instrumental and terminal; to understanding the group’s values instrumental values are defined as ‘a desirable mode of The forty-three themes from the two stakeholder groups conduct’ (Rokeach 1973, p.7) and terminal relate to a were reduced to twenty-two concepts, and using the ‘desirable end-state of existence’ (ibid, p.7). definition of a value presented in figure 1 each concept H became a single value (Tables 1 and 2). For example the The three classifications of the concept of values were C academics original theme of ‘learning through using brains identified earlier and define how the concept value is used R A and hands’ was joined with the trainees’ theme ‘engages differently in relation to D&T: 1. values in; 2. values E pupils in different ways of learning’. developed through; 3. the value of. S E Values (abstract concepts) Academics Trainees R Classification 1: Values in D&T 1 Activity of designing ✓ 4 Examination and questioning of the made world ✓ 7 Identifying problems to be solved ✓ 11 Meaningful activity of solving real problems with real solutions ✓ ✓ 18 Develops the skill of creativity ✓ ✓ Classification 2: Values through D&T 3 Designing for future needs and opportunities ✓ ✓ 6 Helps the understanding of human beings' position & existence ✓ ✓ 9 Learn from evaluating personal success and failure ✓ ✓ 12 Personal ownership of decisions and actions ✓ ✓ 14 Using raw materials to make a product ✓ ✓ 15 Become aware of the economic impact of technological developments ✓ ✓ 16 Considers the ethics of technological development ✓ ✓ 20 Empowers society to act to improve the world ✓ ✓ Classification 3: Values of D&T 2 Alternative to academic subjects ✓ 5 Freedom to take risks and experiment ✓ ✓ 8 It is fun and enjoyable ✓ 10 Learning happens through using brains and hands together ✓ ✓ 13 Provides a practical purpose for other school subjects ✓ 17 Contributes to the nation's industrial and economic competitiveness ✓ 19 Develops the skills of autonomy and collaboration ✓ 21 Learn practical life skills ✓ 22 Learning of vocational skills and techniques that open doors to careers ✓ ✓ Table 2: Comparing value of D&T academics and trainee teachers by classification 16 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers Similarities and Differences by type of value Of the fourteen instrumental values there were four held This section presents the similarities between the two by the trainees only and two by the academics. Only one groups by looking at the instrumental values and then the held by the trainees was clearly about D&T [examination terminal values they both held. Values numbered 1 to 14 and questioning of the made world], whereas the other are classed as ‘instrumental values’ because they are three could be applied to several other school subjects values that have actions that are preferred during the study [alternative to academic subjects; it is fun and enjoyable; of D&T, whereas the terminal values 15-22 are values provides a practical purpose for other school subjects]. The where the actions are seen after studying D&T, such as academics’ unique instrumental value, activity of designing, outside school, when they have left school and are working could have been subsumed into the values about creativity (see Figure 1). Although there is debate within the field of or learning using brains and hands together but this activity social science about this delineated classification of values is distinctive. as by changing the tense or rephrasing a terminal value can become instrumental and vice versa, they provide a There was a similar pattern in the terminal values. The useful method of exploring the similarities and differences three held only by the trainees are not unique to D&T between the D&T experts and trainee teachers. Within the [contributes to the nation's industrial and economic H instrumental value category there were more values held competitiveness; develops the skills of autonomy and C by the trainees than the academics (twelve compared with collaboration; learn practical life skills]. Whereas the unique R ten), eight of which were held by both groups, two by only terminal value held by the academics, identifying problems A the academics and four by the trainees only. The trainees to be solved represents a concept of D&T that is also E held all of the terminal values whilst the academics only reflected in National Curriculum documents (see the S held five. 2003, 2007 and 2013 versions of the English D&T E R curriculum). In terms of considering how D&T helped pupils whilst at school eight of the fourteen instrumental values were held Similarities and Differences by classification of value by both groups. They said D&T was about individual pupils Five values are classed as values in D&T activity (values 1, being able to learn in particular ways [learning happens 4, 7, 11 and 18); eight as values developed through D&T through using brains and hands together] and use (values 3, 6, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 20); and nine as values materials to make a product. D&T also helped pupils learn of D&T (values 2, 5, 8, 10, 13. 17, 19, 21 and 22). about making decisions [personal ownership of decisions and actions] and learn from trial and error [freedom to take Firstly of the five values in D&T only values 11 and 18 risks and experiment; learning from evaluating personal were agreed on by both groups and two values by the success and failure]. They believed D&T was also about academics only (values 1 & 7) and one by the trainees learning and doing activities that could involve and impact (value 13). on others [designing for future needs and opportunities; meaningful activity of solving real problems with real Secondly both groups agreed on all of the values solutions]. Finally they agreed that D&T gives pupils developed through D&T. opportunity to consider the needs of others [designing for future needs and opportunities], and gave pupils a greater Finally the trainees held all of the nine values of D&T whilst understanding about their role in the world [helps the the academics only held three (5, 10 and 22). understanding of human beings position and existence in the world]. Discussion An initial objective of this research was to compare how They agreed on five of the eight terminal values. They two stakeholder groups value D&T; with respect to this the decided that D&T developed the individual’s skill of findings reveal that whilst the two groups have some creativity, and that by D&T being taught in school people similar values there are some notable differences, both in would be empowered to make changes [empowers the type and classification of values. The research’s second society to act to improve the world] and take part in the objective was to provide some insight into why the two world of work [learning vocational skills and techniques groups might have these values. that open doors to careers]. They would also be able to have a wider view of the impact of future choices, for The first notable difference is that most of the values held example when purchasing products [considers the ethics by only the trainees are not unique to D&T, such as of technological development; become aware of the ‘contributes to the nation’s industrial and economic economic impact of technological development]. competitiveness’ (value 17), whereas the two held only by Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 17 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers the academics are found in the origins of D&T (National of D&T based on their teaching, lecturing or research (see Curriculum Council 1989 - known as the Parkes report). Martin (2013) for an example of how this might occur). There are several possible explanations for these differences from both groups’ perspectives. As the trainees progress through the year’s training their values might change, influenced by the research and texts One possible explanation might be that the younger written by these academics; Schwartz (1994) predicts that trainees most recent educational experiences have not a person’s values can change and be acquired through focused on D&T education and included other subjects or ‘socialisation to dominant group values' (p.21), so there is discipline fields, which are tangential to D&T, so even potential that during their course the trainees’ values will though they were asked to write about the purpose of D&T become more aligned with the academics. However Dow they may also have unconsciously included ideas about (2014) argues that the ‘academic (or espoused) theories’ the purpose of education. The second possible explanation (p.151) seldom replace the implicit theories trainee could be that those trainees who had recently left teachers arrive with at the start of their training. Furthermore employment to enter teacher training may be reflecting on she warns that as a trainee becomes embedded in a school how they used at work what they learnt in D&T when at they acquire implicit theories and values from teachers, not H school. For example one trainee who had previously that these values are necessarily false but they are C worked as a graphic designer can see the direct value of ‘shrouded in mists of the past’ (p.151) and because of R A D&T in helping them gain employment in that career. regular changes to government policy these values may not E support the actual practice in schools. S The second notable difference is the number of terminal E values held only by the trainees, eight compared to five Surprisingly, both groups agreed on all of the values from R held by the academics. These group differences could be the second classification, ‘values developed through’. There explained by age and period in their career and could is no clear reason for this but it is interesting to speculate. account for the trainees identifying with the outcomes of These reasons could be due to their age and experience; education (terminal value) and the academics with the they all experienced D&T since the National Curriculum’s process of education (instrumental value). The trainees inception in 1990, with two exceptions – one trainee was had just started a course that would lead to a career, a in school before this period and one academic was from clear terminal value of their course; whereas the academics Australasia. Whilst only based on a small sample this who are established in their D&T careers could be looking encouraging finding shows that an agreed purpose of D&T back through the lens of their research in D&T, particularly is the development of technological literacy, although this research which has been classroom based and focused on is not to suggest that the trainees would understand this what and how children are learning in D&T. term at this stage in their careers or that the academics would agree on the term’s definition. The most striking variance was in the third category, the value of D&T, which consists of nine values; the trainees These hypotheses based on the participants’ age and hold all of these but the academics hold only three. This experiences are consistent with Schwartz’s (1994) view difference may be explained by the experience of the that a person’s values can change ‘through the unique trainees who are starting their careers with a view of D&T learning experiences of individuals’ (p.21). derived from their limited personal experience of D&T at school. This may explain why only they think D&T is of The third objective of this research was to suggest some value because it is fun, enjoyable and a change from possible consequences of these differences and whilst the academics subjects. Also it might be due to them sample size is too small to project definite consequences being in the early stages of their D&T careers and there are two opportunities to speculate on implications. consequently having a weak philosophical understanding Firstly with regard to pedagogy and subject content it is about D&T. conceivable that by emphasising the immediate value of D&T for pupils and with a limited view of its value beyond The limited trainees’ personal view could be a schools (using practical skills in the home and having a consequence of their experience of D&T in school, design-related career for example) the trainees might teach explaining why they don’t recognise that D&T can be about lessons that ignore the enduring value of D&T. If this is left the process of designing or identifying the needs of others, unchallenged this could become the prevailing value both values central to the original purpose of D&T and held profile of D&T in schools. This leads to the second only by the academics. Contrariwise the values of the speculative area, that of teacher training and the shift in academics could be influenced by their wider experience stakeholder power. 18 Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 What’s D&T For? Gathering and Comparing the Values of Design and Technology Academics and Trainee Teachers As schools take more ownership of teacher training in point for helping schools leading teacher training to ensure England the value of D&T is likely to move further away a breadth of purpose to D&T, rather than the narrower one from the D&T academics’ influence and be based upon exhibited in the new National Curriculum. Finally Keirl the ‘spontaneous’ (Dow 2014 p.151) values developed in (2007) reminds us that ‘D&T teachers periodically find classroom practice. The power and legitimacy of D&T themselves offering some sort of defence of the subject’ academics will be in decline as the power and legitimacy (p.550) and so the series of values presented here could of D&T teachers increases, particularly with regard to the help D&T stakeholders celebrate D&T’s strength and subject’s content and purpose. As the trainee teachers who defend its contribution to a school’s curriculum. hold the values presented here move into teaching posts, taking on more directive roles as teacher educators in Internationally the series could be used to compare values schools for the next group of trainee teachers, their values held with trainees in other countries, for example in will be shaping the values of these newcomers. The wider Sweden where the majority of technology teachers are not values held by the D&T academics could be lost as their certified (see Hartell and Svärdh, 2012 in Hartell 2014) number diminishes as teacher training units in universities this series of values could help understand the values that close and they no longer have the legitimacy to direct new the teachers need to develop for aligning to Sweden’s H trainee teachers. This is only speculation but a possible national curriculum. C early warning of the direction D&T, and other subjects, R could take if teachers and trainee teachers become the How could this series become more definitive? It presently A primary legitimate and powerful stakeholders within the only represents the values of two stakeholder groups, both E field of secondary education. within the secondary school sector. Further interviews with S other stakeholders, such as pupils (primary and E R Finally the author does not suggest that other stakeholders secondary), current D&T teachers and parents, would would hold all these values and that there are no values of improve the cogency of future versions, particularly as D&T other than those presented here, as the author teacher training becomes owned by schools and classroom recognises when reflecting on the interpretive limitations of teachers will have more influence over the values and this study. The author acknowledges she is an active theories of trainee teachers. Some of this work is currently participant in the research in three ways (Alvesson and been undertaken by the author for her PhD study that is Skoldberg 2009); she has been involved in the aiming to identify and compare the values held by a wide construction of the trainee teachers’ values, the power range of stakeholders. relationship between her and the academics as she is an early career researcher and her own values of D&T will Conclusion have been derived from engaging with the academics’ This research has demonstrated that the values of trainee work, and finally in her interpretation of the values because teachers about D&T can be gathered from a written of the views she has of the value of D&T. For example she assignment. It has also demonstrated that comparable had to suppress her disagreement with some of the values values can be derived from interviews with D&T expressed by the participants, such as value number two academics. that D&T is of value because it is an alternative to academic subjects. The data gathered was analysed to show 14 instrumental values and 8 terminal values. Comparison of the values of Use of the values series the two groups, trainees and academics, showed that the Can the values in Table 1 be seen as the definitive guide to trainees held a greater number of values than the value of D&T? No. But in its current form it does have academics. This was true in both the instrumental and potential use on three levels: for an individual, to reflect on terminal category. D&T in a school, and to understand national views. The series could be used to stimulate discussion and debate The second major finding was in the three different during teacher training programmes to help trainees classifications of values: 5 ‘values in D&T’, 8 ‘values question their own values and extend their philosophical developed through D&T’, and 9 ‘values of D&T’. The two view of D&T. It has already been used within two stakeholder groups agreed on all of the second secondary schools to compare how the D&T teachers, classification but only two and three respectively of the first pupils and school senior leaders value D&T (Hardy, and third classification. Gyekye and Wainwright 2015), leading to changes in both D&T department’s curriculum. As ITT changes alongside a In interpreting the results it was clear that their experiences new National Curriculum this series could provide a starting from D&T (as pupils, teachers, in employment outside Design and Technology Education: An International Journal 20.2 19