29 Concept Maps and Informational Read-Alouds: Strengthening both Science and Reading for Elementary Students Jaime Berry Jalene Potter Victoria Hollas Sam Houston State University Abstract This quasi-experimental study compared the effects of concept mapping and teacher generated questioning on students’ organization and retention of science knowledge when used along with interactive informational read-alouds. Fifty-eight third grade students completed an eight-day unit regarding “soil formation.” Students who participated in concept mapping scored significantly higher on a test of relational vocabulary, identification of key ideas and written expression than students who participated in traditional teacher questioning. Proficient skills in science and reading are Fortunately, there have been promising prerequisites to be productive members of instructional practices shown to benefit society. Individuals must be able to use science and reading instruction including: scientific processes in everyday decision- integrating science and literacy making and must possess the scientific (Pearson, Moje & Greenleaf, 2010); background knowledge to make sound incorporating informational text decisions (National Science Standards [NSS], (using science trade books (Smolkin, 1996). In addition, individuals must have McTigue, Donovan & Coleman, the literacy tools to read and comprehend 2008); informational articles about current using informational interactive read- scientific topics that affect their lives (e.g. alouds (Smolkin & Donovan, 2001); salmonella, cancer research) (Draper, the use of graphic organizers 2011). Moreover, many individuals will specifically concept maps (Oliver, have roles in society that require science 2009); and literacy skills including teachers, and teacher questioning (Heilman, engineers, scientists, and researchers Blair & Rupley, 2002). (National Standards, 1996). However, current instructional practices, in which But little or no research has combined reading and content instruction are typically these methods to examine its effect on separated, often leave students unable to student learning. The present study handle the more challenging demands of examined how the use of interactive content material (Shanahan & Shanahan, read-alouds using science trade books 2008). with concept mapping and/or questioning affected elementary Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 30 students’ organization and retention of decisions and express positions different types of science knowledge. that are scientifically and technologically informed. A Integration of Science and literate citizen should be able to Literacy is Not a New Concept evaluate the quality of scientific information on the basis of the The integration of reading and science is sources and the methods used not a new concept. In fact, scientists to generate it. Scientific literacy have integrated the two for centuries also implies the capacity to pose (Pearson, Moje, Greenleaf, 2010). To and evaluate arguments based help students to experience science in on evidence and to apply its true state, then teachers must conclusions from such provide a learning environment that arguments appropriately (NSS, promotes the integration of science and 1996, pp. 2). literacy. As evidenced above, a key factor in the With the explosion of scientific preceding definition is the need for information from salmonella illnesses literacy skills. One must be able to read (Draper, 2011) to cloning (Rupley & and most importantly understand text, Slough 2011), there has never been articles, and journals to learn about such a crucial time for one to be a scientific phenomena. Scientific literacy “scientifically literate citizen” (Fang & also implies that one must be able to Wei, 2010). write and communicate effectively to make informed decisions. Accordingly, The National Science Education researchers have suggested that literacy Standards define science literacy as the is an integral part of learning science following: (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find, or The Importance of Incorporating determine answers to questions derived from curiosity about Informational Text everyday experiences. It means Incorporating informational text is not that a person has the ability to an option but a necessity for teachers. describe, explain, and predict By the time students reach sixth grade, natural phenomena. Scientific 75% of their reading will be from literacy entails being able to informational texts (Moss, 2005). In read with understanding articles addition, many of their assessments by about science in the popular grade four will require them to press and to engage in social understand and comprehend conversation about the validity informational text. For example, 50% of of the conclusions. Scientific the fourth grade National Assessment of literacy implies that person can Educational Progress, (NAEP) contained identify scientific issues informational text (Moss, 2005). underlying national and local Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 31 It is evident that students need early Informational Interactive Read- exposure to informational text to help Alouds them prepare for later grade levels and Reading aloud in both homes and the expectations of the College and classrooms is a widespread practice Career Readiness Standards. Duke (Beck & McKeown, 2001) that has (2000) brought awareness to the shown to be beneficial to learning educational community about the (Morrison & Wlodarczyk, 2009). The importance of informational text as well report Becoming a Nation of Readers as the scarcity of informational text in (Anderson, Hiebert, Wilkinson, & Scott, the primary grades. In her landmark 1985) concluded that “the single most study that shed light on the use of important activity for building the instructional text in the primary grades, knowledge required for eventual she investigated the time spent with success in reading is reading aloud to informational text and found only 3.6 children” (p. 33). Recently, there has minutes was the average time spent per been an increase in intentionally and day on this genre. Jeong, Gaffney & purposefully combining reading aloud of Choi (2010) extended Duke’s study with informational texts with guided grades 2-4. They found consistent conversation or discussion, also referred results with one minute spent on to as “informational interactive read- instructional text in grade 1 with an alouds”. increase to only 16 minutes in grades 3 and 4. An informational interactive read-aloud is a multifaceted instructional technique It has been suggested that the scarcity in which a teacher models reading of informational text may be associated thought processes while engaging with the decline in reading achievement students in discussion through sharing after third grade (Chall, Jacobs & and posing questions (Beck & McKeown, Baldwin, 1990; Ness, 2011;). This 2001; Smolkin & Donovan, 2003;). decline has also been referred to as the When modeling, teachers “think aloud” “fourth-grade slump” (Jeong, Gaffney, to reveal reading strategies that Choi, 2010). Around fourth grade, there proficient readers use in reading and is an increase of informational text. understanding informational text Some fourth graders are unprepared to including “fix up” strategies when comprehend this informational text and, comprehension breaks down therefore, experience a decrease in (Loxterman, Beck, McKeown, 1994). reading achievement (Ness, 2011). These metacognitive strategies are With this evidence, there is an even essential to learning because they allow stronger need for primary teachers to learners to assess their own level of incorporate informational text in their comprehension and adjust strategies as curriculum. needed (Oster, 2001). Instructional Strategies Used Another critical component of in this Study interactive read-alouds is the facilitation Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 32 of dialogic discussion encouraging arrows, lines and text boxes, graphic students to participate in a collaborative organizers aid students in learning from discussion (Reznitskaya, 2012). As text in multiple ways (Hall, Kent, opposed to traditional read-alouds in McCully, Davis & Wanzek, 2013). The which the teacher has sole authority, a visual structure helps students organize dialogic discussion is unique because information and make relevant authority is shared among the students connections (Katayama & Robinson, and the teacher encouraging students 2000). Translating information from a to discuss pose questions share their text format to a graphic organizer can ideas and examine others’ viewpoints deepen the learning process for the regarding the text (Reznitskaya, 2012). reader (Nesbit & Adesope, 2006). In addition, students are provided an opportunity to make connections with This study focused on the use of the the text. Through this cognitive concept map, created by Novak (1990) process, a student makes a connection as a tool to help students organize ideas to self, other texts, or to the world and thoughts especially in the area of (Harvey & Goudvis, 2007). Text may science. In using a concept map, a have different meanings for different teacher or student selects a certain individuals because each reader brings topic to be mapped (Novak & Gowin, his or her own background knowledge 1984). As shown in Figure 1, the and personal experiences that shape students have an opportunity to identify the meaning of the text (Rosenblatt, key concepts and then draw lines to 1978). Rosenblatt (1978) proposed a connect and show relationships “transactional view” of reading in which between concepts. Linking words or the reader transacts with the text to phrases are used to define these make meaning (Morrison & Wlodarcyzk, connections. A particular advantage to 2009; Rosenblatt, 1978). Not only do concept mapping is that it can be used students have an opportunity to discuss as a pre-reading, during reading and/or and deepen their understanding of a post-reading activity. complex science concepts, discussion provides a platform for minimizing Teacher Questioning students’ misconceptions (through A common and very traditional teachers’ assessment) and increasing approach to teaching and learning is vocabulary development (Leung, 2008). teacher-generated questioning which has proven to have positive effects on Graphic Organizers and Concept students’ text comprehension (2007; Mapping Feldt, Feldt, & Kilburg, 2002). Among Graphic organizers are a literacy the benefits is the promotion of student strategy tool shown to benefit students understanding by focusing attention of in learning content (Katayama & the important details. In addition, this Robinson, 2000). By organizing instructional strategy can be beneficial information and showing relationships in clarifying meaning as well as between concepts through the use of minimizing students’ misinterpretation of information (Heilman, Blair & Rupley, Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 33 2002). Questioning can also aid in comparison group participated in a propelling prior knowledge by activating teacher-questioning activity. Both students’ experiential and conceptual activities were conducted before and backgrounds (Heilman et, al., 2002) after the informational interactive read- promoting deep processing of aloud. information (McKeown & Beck, 1993). Treatment Group: Concept But yet, there have been several Mapping criticisms to using teacher questioning Used as a pre-reading activity and to as an instructional method (Feldt, et al., assess prior knowledge, participants in 2002). First, students may search for the treatment group created a concept important ideas to memorize instead of map on what they already knew about making connections and increasing the concept being taught for the day relational knowledge (Cook & Mayer, (e.g. soil formation). Then students had 1983). Secondly, some of the questions an opportunity to share their concept that may be used, especially publisher- map with their classmates, followed by provided, fail to promote higher the creation of a class constructed cognitive levels (Feldt, et al., 2002). concept map. As a post-reading activity, Although effective teacher questioning students created another concept map has also been shown to promote as shown in Figure 2 on what they students’ understanding (Heisey & learned during the lesson, again Kucan, 2010; Lloyd, 2004), most followed by an opportunity to share questions are not designed to promote their map with their classmates. connections between ideas in the same manner as concept mapping. Comparison Group: Teacher Questioning Methodology Since teacher questioning is commonly Participants used in traditional teaching, it was the The participants were third grade strategy used for the comparison group. students from an urban elementary As a pre-reading strategy and to assess school in the northwest region of the prior knowledge, the teacher posed United States. There were 29 several questions in regards to the topic participants in the treatment group and being discussed for the day (e.g. soil 29 participants in the comparison formation). For example, one of the group. Both groups participated in an questions posed by the teacher on the eight-day study over the scientific topic first day of the lesson was “What do you of soil formation. know about soil?” Students had an opportunity to write down their Both groups participated in an answers and share their responses with informational interactive read-aloud. the classmates. The teacher posted the The students in the treatment group students’ answers on the board. As a participated in a concept mapping post-reading activity, the teacher posed activity while participants in the questions regarding the lesson. For Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 34 example one of the questions posed by the teacher was “What is the purpose of The relational vocabulary assessment soil?” Students had an opportunity to required students to find the underlying write down their answers followed by similarity between a set of concepts an opportunity to share their responses whereas the matching vocabulary test with the class as is a common classroom relied on simple definitions. The pre- practice. test was administered a week before the study. The post-test was completed Both Groups: Informational the day after the study was completed Interactive Read-Aloud and the delayed post-test was administered five days after the Participants in both the treatment and completion of the instructional unit. the comparison group participated in a series of informational interactive read- Data Analysis alouds conducted by the science teacher. The teacher used a science Analysis indicated that the treatment trade book focusing on the specific and comparison group performed concept they were learning for that day. comparable on the pre-test indicating The trade books were selected by a that there was not a significant group of third grade teachers based on difference between the background content accuracy and aesthetic appeal. knowledge of participants in both During the informational interactive groups. As shown in Table 2 located at read-aloud, the science teacher the end of the article, the treatment modeled her reading process while group scored significantly higher than engaging students in dialogic discussion the comparison group on the post-and regarding the scientific text. delayed post-tests on three of the four assessments including relational Assessments vocabulary (measuring relational knowledge), multiple choice (measuring Pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test ability to identify key ideas), and the were developed by the researchers. writing assessment (measuring clarity of Information about the concept of soil written expression). These findings formation was measured using the appear to be quite logical due to the following types of assessments: goals cognitive strategies involved in a) relational vocabulary assessment completing concept mapping (measuring relational knowledge); procedures. Surprisingly, there was not b) vocabulary matching assessment a significant difference in the (measuring individual word performance of the treatment group knowledge); and comparison group on matching c) multiple-choice comprehension vocabulary. assessment (measuring students’ ability to identify key ideas; and It is also important to highlight that d) a writing comprehension assessment although the treatment group (measuring students’ clarity of outperformed the comparison group, written expression). both groups showed significant growth. Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 35 As shown in Table 3 located at the end Discussion of Results of the article, the treatment group Relational Knowledge showed significant growth between the Relational knowledge is being able to pre-test and post-test on all four identify relationships between concepts assessments specifically in relational as well as how they are related (DiCecco knowledge (as measured by the & Gleason, 2002). Based on construct- relational vocabulary assessment), ivist ideas, Novak designed the concept ability to identify key ideas (as map as a tool to show students’ measured by the multiple choice understanding and meaning of concepts assessment), clarity of written in their own cognitive structure (Novak expression and use domain knowledge & Gowin, 1984). Concept maps have (as measured by the writing been shown to be beneficial due to its assessment), and individual word visuospatial elements. It is logical then, knowledge (as measured by the that students who used concept vocabulary matching assessment). In mapping increased their relational addition, there was not a significant knowledge. This graphical instructional difference between their performance tool features cross-links that highlight on the post-test and on the delayed relationships or links between concepts post-test (given five days later) on all in different domains of the concept four assessments. map, signaling hierarchical relationships (or other types of relationships) that can As shown in Table 4 located at the end be immediately perceived by the of the article, the comparison group student (Novak & Canas, 2006). showed significant growth between the pre-test and post-test on all four Recall of Key Ideas assessments. It is important to note The data also revealed that concept that there was not a significant mapping was beneficial in helping difference between their performance students recall key ideas as measured on the post-test and delayed post-test by a multiple-choice assessment. This on the writing assessment. However, finding is consistent with dual coding there was a significant difference on the theory suggesting that storing relational vocabulary assessment, information in two codes, verbal and multiple-choice assessment and nonverbal (e.g., visual), may aid in matching vocabulary assessment. This increasing memory or recall of indicates that participants in the information because it provides two comparison group were able to retain pathways to retrieve it from long-term information in written expression but memory (Paivio, 1986; Paivio & Csapo, not in relational vocabulary knowledge, 1973; Sadoski, 2005; Vekiri, 2002). Dual identifying key ideas and individual coding theory can be applied to concept word knowledge. Data analysis of the mapping because the graphical specific types of science knowledge organizers uses visual graphics (shapes) assessed is highlighted in the next as well as text proving advantageous for sections. memory. Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 36 Written Expression not easily captured by such a format. The students in this study using concept Therefore, there may be other literacy mapping scored higher on tests of instructional methods that might be written expression. This is consistent more beneficial for individual word with findings from DiCecco and Gleason learning. (2002) who found that students who used graphic organizers for learning Retaining Information science also scored higher on written Finally, an important feature in this essays. One of the most critical experimental design was the use of processes in writing is the organization immediate and delayed post-testing. of ideas. According to Novak and Gowin The treatment group’s gains in (1984), graphic organizers such as relational vocabulary, identifying key concept maps are powerful pedagogical ideas, and written expression were tools because they allow learners to maintained after five days as measured visualize concepts as well as the in the delayed testing indicating that hierarchical relationships between them concept mapping facilitates learning as which could result in clearly articulated well as supports the retention of the and organized written essays. In information. According to Robinson summary, the use of graphic organizers, (1998), one of the limitations in past such as concepts maps, can be research on graphic organizers is the beneficial for students in the area of limited use of assessing students in a writing combining their ability to apply delayed measurement. However, to newly acquired knowledge as well as measure long term learning, delayed express their relational knowledge in a measures are more important than coherent essay. immediate recall. Individual Word Learning As expected, all groups performed lower in the delayed post-test than the In addition to discussing the significant immediate post-tests. However, the differences between the groups, it is amount of loss differed between the equally critical to discuss areas in which treatment group and comparison group. they did not differ in performance. On all of the four assessments, the Specifically, there was not a significant treatment group had a lower point difference between the treatment decrease in the mean average between group and the comparison group on the time-points of the post-test and the individual word learning, as measured delayed post-test indicating that the by the matching vocabulary assessment. treatment group demonstrated higher Of interest, in the analysis of graphic retention than the comparison group. organizer research, few studies have used the matching format as an Limitations assessment. This may be due to the fact that the type of learning theoretically The study had several limitations that promoted by concept maps might have affected the statistical (relationships) (Novak & Canas, 2006), is outcome of the data. A longer Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 37 treatment period would provide students when creating the concept students with more opportunities to maps may have been a rich source of further develop their skills associated learning. with the use of concept mapping with additional topics and concepts in Technology Applications science. It would also be interesting to The beauty about concept mapping is see if levels of differences between the that it can be done before, during and treatment group and the comparison after reading. In addition, concept group would increase, decrease or mapping can be incorporated into all sustain. Next, it would have been ideal content areas. Recently, there has been if there were a longer period between a plethora of new technology the post-test and delayed post-test. applications featuring graphic However, due to constraints of the organizers. In fact, these applications school calendar, there was only five have opened the door for collaborative days between the post-test and delayed opportunities providing a platform for post-test. It would have been ideal if students to work on their project in there were a longer period between the real-time in partners or even groups. post-test and delayed post-test. We have highlighted several applications in Table 5 located at the Implications end of the article. Figure 1 is an While moderate in scale, the results of example of a concept map using this study indicated that concept Bubbl.us. Not only will this increase mapping coupled with interactive their technology skills in this Digital Age, informational read-alouds could be an it will increase their knowledge in effective strategy in learning science learning science concepts. concepts. The treatment group scored higher on three of the four assessments. This finding indicates that concept mapping may be suited to promote certain types of knowledge including identifying key ideas, recalling information and written expression. The use of concept mapping did not take more time than answering comprehension questions, but was more effective on three of four assessments, in both immediate and delayed post-testing. Using concept maps with a set of related texts, or text set facilitated students’ connections across texts and focus on the underlying science concepts. Additionally, the discourse and interaction between Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1 38 Figure 1. Example of Concept Map Figure 2. Student’s Concept Map on Soil Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1