Universal Journal of Educational Research 4(7): 1644-1651, 2016 http://www.hrpub.org DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2016.040716 Applying School Administrators’ Authentic Leadership Skills in Conflict Situations: The Perceptions of Substitute Teachers Seyithan Demirdag*, Sezai Kalafat Department of Educational Sciences, Bulent Ecevit University, Turkey Copyright©2016 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License. Abstract This study mainly aimed to determine the learning theories, reading instruction, and math instruction. relationships between conflict management strategies and After taking these courses, new teachers will have to practice authentic leadership attitudes of primary school their theoretical knowledge under the guidance of a master administrators based on the perception of substitute teachers, teacher. On the other hand, substitute teachers are not who were in pedagogical proficiency classes at a university. required to have any educational training or experience. This quantitative study included 456 substitute teachers. Nevertheless, school districts with sufficient funds are Two instruments were used for data collection. Authentic willing to provide training for substitute teachers. As a Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) was used to examine consequence, lack of training and experience may put these primary school administrators’ authentic leadership levels teachers in the center of blames of permanent teachers and and Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory–II (ROCI–II) school administrators. Such ill-treatments may jeopardize was used to examine their conflict management levels based substitute teachers’ quality of teaching. on the perceptions of substitute teachers. The data was The demand for substitute teachers has increased due to analyzed based on the descriptive statistics, correlations, absentee rate of permanent teachers. Research suggests that and regression analyses. The findings of the study showed students in the USA spend at least 10 percent of a school year that administrators’ leadership levels were the highest on being instructed by a substitute teacher [43]. This finding Self-Awareness (SEAW) and the lowest on Relational indicates that from K-12 grades, students are being taught Transparency (RETR). In addition, their conflict under the guidance of substitute teachers. So, this suggests management levels were the highest on Dominating (DO) that at least eight percent of students in the USA, spend and the lowest on Avoiding (AV). The results also suggested valuable instructional times with substitute teachers [14]. In that there were significantly low levels of relationships line with this, it is inevitable to accept that substitute teachers between primary school administrators’ conflict have been an integral part of the educational process. management strategies and authentic leadership attitudes. Therefore, the treatment of their superiors such as school Lastly, based on the findings from regression analyses, the principals may have a substantial impact on their teaching variables constituting the subscales of ALQ predicted quite and motivation. low percentages of variances in ROCI-II’s subscales. In a developing country such as Turkey, it is estimated that the number of substitute teachers is about 11 percent of Keywords Authentic Leadership, Conflict Management, permanent school teachers [31]. Most of these substitute Substitute Teachers, School Administrators teachers are alternatively certified through pedagogical proficiency classes provided by colleges of education. According to data from MEB [31], Turkish schools still need more than 120 thousands permanent teachers. The gap 1. Introduction associated with permanent teachers in Turkish schools has been covered by substitute teachers. Compared to substitute While recent legislations in many developed countries teachers in the USA, such teachers go through similar mandate that all teachers must be highly qualified in their problems in Turkey as well. As they do not receive proper areas of teaching, there are no such requirements for training, in many cases they may be required to teach courses substitute teachers. In a developed country such as the USA, other than their areas of specialties. This situation decreases being a permanent classroom teacher requires taking their levels of self-efficacy and self-trust as many of them do graduate level courses such as classroom management, not receive proper training on classroom management or Universal Journal of Educational Research 4(7): 1644-1651, 2016 1645 conflict management strategies. In addition, lack of support administrators [33]. Improving student learning necessitates from their colleagues and leadership from their the existence of authentic leaders, who are able to administrators may worsen their quality of teaching or encourage all teachers and students for collaboration, enthusiasm towards increasing student achievement. motivation and communication in schools where the overall culture is positive [e.g., 36, 42, 46]. 1.1. Authentic Leadership 1.2. Conflict Management Being authentic is all about being consistent about knowing oneself on individual base [4]. Authentic leaders Conflicts include situations where individuals start are committed to understand what sorts of drivers about having substantial differences on ideas, values, interests, or their purpose, integrity, values, and relationships are beliefs [7]. Conflict management creates difficulties for important in such attitudes [e.g., 16, 28]. The world needs certain individuals or groups when people in charge tend to authentic leaders, who are the stable forces in effecting take customary measures about the conflict itself [27]. people’s life [3]. It is evident that authentic leaders Therefore, this process may be destructive rather than being encourage positive leadership actions throughout the handled in a positive problem solving manner. Although organizations [e.g., 19, 30]. Research suggests that most research conducted on conflict management is about authenticity in leadership promotes team work, engagement, traditional organizations, it is crucial to point out that and increased culture [e.g., 13, 28]. In addition it prevents educational institutions are free from conflict situations [32]. victimization and bullying in an organization [e.g., 3, 15]. Due to the characteristics of academic departments, conflict There are several theories on authentic leadership; situations in educational institutions may be irrepressible. however, most of them rely on Kernis’s [23] theoretical These conflicts may be between school principals or all framework, which defines the concept of authenticity as a teachers and between permanent teachers or substitute person’s true self or his uninhibited behavior. Kernis [23] teachers, and between teachers or students [20]. suggests that authentic leaders are aware of their feelings, In literature, several ways of handling conflicts are thoughts, manners, and character traits and take actions outlined; however, research mainly relies on Dual Concern accordingly in certain situations. The characteristic features Theory, which was proposed by Blake and Mouton [6] of authentic leaders may expose their real attitudes while Later on, the theory was revised by Rahim [39] and Pruitt facing conflict situations. Therefore, the thoughts and and Rubin [38]. The theory basically suggests that conflict feelings of authentic leaders may have an effect on how management is a combination of low or high concerns they would be willing to find a resolution in chaotic either for self or others [e.g., 40, 44]. In addition, it suggests conditions. Authentic leaders would eventually possess the that solution of the problems may be possible when capacity of developing meaningful exchanges with their individuals or groups tend to be open, exchange information, colleagues and followers [e.g., 11, 35]. Such exchanges and examine the differences between one another [e.g., 25, would result in more productive working environments [e.g., 37]. 13, 28, 4]. Having authentic leaders in organizational It is important to indicate that conflicts may create settings may create a reflection of trustworthiness as well as situations for teachers’ and students’ growth. However, strong connections [34]. The actions and behaviors of these when not handled well, it may be harmful and prevent leaders are consistent with their beliefs and attitudes. student learning as well as teacher-teacher and Authentic leaders are needed in many situations including administrator-teacher collaboration, which may have a crises occurring in a work environment [10]. They would substantial impact on a school’ learning and leadership use their critical reasoning and positive psychological culture [e.g., 18, 45]. Conflicts in schools may occur based capacities to find substantial solutions for the problems on several reasons: lack of communication and openness, causing crises [1]. Moreover, leaders’ balanced processing authority issues, expectations, responsibilities, resentments, capacities will help people to be aware of their problem and misunderstandings [e.g., 5, 18, 26]. Additionally, solving potentials in order to be involved in decision coming from different cultural backgrounds or having making processes [41]. different worldviews may also be the reasons of conflict Preparing leaders for K-12 schools has been the focal among educators and school leaders [45]. Some school point of discussions in educational settings. Having school administrators may find it extremely difficult to include principals with lack of leadership skills may have negative both permanent and substitute teachers in decision making impacts on both permanent and substitute teachers [24]. processes regarding student success and school related Stakeholders in education believe that school principals, events [2]. Such treatment would only create a negative who have difficulty in dealing with conflict situations, may teaching and learning environment for students, teachers, be the main reasons for negative school climate and culture and administrators [29]. Research suggests that leaders in [12]. Although school reforms mainly focus on improving education may be successful in conflict management when the quality of teaching and learning, teachers, students and they have commitment to identify and understand the issues parents are aware of the fact that the quality of education is preventing teachers from teaching and students from heavily relied on the quality of leadership skills of school learning [e.g., 5, 22]. 1646 Applying School Administrators' Authentic Leadership Skills in Conflict Situations: The Perceptions of Substitute Teachers Although there are many studies on authentic leadership participants (see Table 1). and conflict management strategies, most of the studies are Table 1. Distribution of Substitute Teachers According to Their Genders related to traditional organizational settings. Those, which & Teaching Experiences are conducted in educational settings mainly focus on Female: 268 (58.8%) permanent teachers, school administrators, parents, or Gender students. Research is lacking about the authentic leadership Male: 188 (41.2%) and conflict management strategies of primary schools’ 7 years Teaching 1-2 years 3-4 years 5-6 years and more administrators based on the perceptions of substitute Experience 208 (45.6%) 106 (23.3%) 99 (21.7%) 43 (9.4%) teachers. Thus, the present study is believed to fill this gap in the literature. 2.2. Data Collection Tools 1.3. Purpose of the Study The study included two data collection instruments. Each The aim of this study was to determine the relationship instrument had questions about participants’ demographics between conflict management strategies and authentic including their genders and teaching experiences. The first leadership of school principals based on the perception of instrument, Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) was substitute teachers. To achieve this goal, the following used to examine primary school administrators’ authentic research questions were asked: leadership levels based on the perceptions of substitute 1. What are the perceptions of substitute teachers about teachers. The second instrument, Rahim Organizational primary school administrators’ authentic leadership and Conflict Inventory–II (ROCI–II) was used to examine the conflict management strategies? conflict management levels of primary school 2. How do the perceptions of substitute teachers about administrators based on perceptions of substitute teachers. primary school administrators’ authentic leadership and ALQ, was originally developed by Gardner et al. [13] conflict management strategies differ based on their and adapted to Turkish by Çeri-Booms [9]. This five-point genders? (Strongly Disagree-1 to Strongly Agree-5) Likert type scale 3. What are the relationships between primary school included 16 items. The scale included four subscales: Self administrators’ authentic leadership and conflict Awareness (SEAW-4 items), Unprejudiced Assessment management strategies based on the perceptions of (UNAS-3 items), Relational Transparency (RETR-5 items), substitute teachers? and Ethics (ET-4 items). The validity and reliability studies 4. Do school administrators’ conflict management of the scale were done by Çeri-Booms [9] as the Cronbach’s strategies predict their authentic leadership behaviors? Alpha internal consistency coefficient of α was .81. The reliability coefficients were estimated again using the data obtained in the present study, which revealed reliable results, 2. Methodology α = .71 for SEAW; α = .77 for UNAS; α = .75 for RETR, and α = .78 for ET. This quantitative study was designed as a relational ROCI–II, was originally developed by Rahim [39] and descriptive model to examine the relationships between adapted to Turkish language by Gümüşeli [17]. This school administrators’ authentic leadership and conflict five-point (Strongly Disagree-1 to Strongly Agree-5) Likert management strategies. The relational descriptive model type scale included 28 items. The scale was designed to was used to explain the level and existence of relationships measure five dimensions of conflict management strategies: between variables that have associations between past and Integrating (IN-7 items), Obliging (OB-6 items), current situations [21]. Dominating (DO-5 items), Avoiding (AV-6 items), and Compromising (CO-4 items). The validity and reliability 2.1. Sample studies of the scale were done by Gümüşeli [17] as the Cronbach’s Alpha internal consistency coefficient of α The participants of the study included substitute teachers was .80. The reliability coefficients were estimated again attending a university’s alternative certification program in using the data obtained in the present study, which revealed Zonguldak province, Turkey to become permanent teachers reliable results, α = .77 for IN; α = .72 for OB; α = .72 for in their schools. They were selected through non-random DO, α = .75 for AV, and α = .72 for CO. selection. There were 456 substitute teachers in the sample to examine the authentic leadership and conflict 2.3. Data Analysis management strategies of the primary school administrators. Out of 456 participants, there were 268 (58.8%) female The independent variables in the study were “gender” substitute teachers and 188 (41.2%) male substitute teachers. and “experience” and the dependent variables were Years of teaching experiences were 1-2 years for 208 “authentic leadership” and “conflict management strategies” (45.6%) participants, 3-4 years for 106 (23.3%) participants, of primary school administrators based on the perceptions 5-6 years for 99 (21.7%), and 7 years and more for 43 (9.4) of substitute teachers. The analysis of the study was made in Universal Journal of Educational Research 4(7): 1644-1651, 2016 1647 a pattern revealing the effects of independent variable on Table 2. Authentic Leadership and Conflict Management Levels of Primary School Administrators Based on the Genders of Substitute Teachers the dependent variables as well as the relationships between dependent variables. The SSPS 20.0 package program was Variables Gender N Mean SD t p used for data analyses. For the analysis, first, mean scores ALQ Total Male 188 3.57 .30 .57 .56 of each subscale were determined based on the following Score Female 268 3.55 .32 calculations: 1.00-1.80 (absolutely disagree), 1.81-2.60 ROCI–II Total Male 188 3.64 .25 (disagree), 2.61-3.40 (neutral), 3.41 to 4.20 (agree), and Score Female 268 3.61 .23 1.44 .15 4.21 to 5.00 (strongly agree). To detect the levels of p < .05 authentic leadership and conflict management levels of The results of descriptive statistics (means and standard primary school administrators based on the genders of deviations) and correlation coefficients are presented in substitute teachers, independent samples t-test was adopted. Table 3. Based on the results of descriptive statistics, the The association between dependent variables was estimated highest mean scores in terms of authentic leadership using Pearson correlation coefficient (r). According to belonged to SEAW ( = 3.62) subscale, while RETR Büyüköztürk [8], the correlation coefficients may be (  = 3.49) had the lowest scores. In addition, the perceptions interpreted according to the following values: .70–1.00 = of substitute teachers based on primary school’s high, .69–0.30 = moderate, and .29–.00 = low. Lastly, administrators conflict management levels were the highest Multiple Linear Regression Analysis was used to analyze on DO ( = 3.76) and the lowest on AV ( = 3.33). how much of independent variables predict the dependent The Pearson Correlation Coefficient technique was used variables. The standardized Beta (β) coefficients and the to ascertain the relationships between primary school t-test results regarding their significance were considered. administrators’ authentic leadership and conflict The significance coefficient, p was set at .05 for the management levels based on the perceptions of substitute statistical analyses made in the study. teachers (see Table 3). Based on the results, there were not significant relationships between all subscales of ALQ and ROCI-II. However, as a subscale of ALQ, RETR had 3. Results meaningful relationships with IN, OB, AV, and CO as the subscales of ROCI-II. The correlations were low and Study findings and their interpretations are presented in significant. When inter-correlations between these subscales this section of the study. The independent sample t-test was were analyzed, the correlation between RETR and IN was conducted to determine the authentic leadership and conflict negative and significant (r = -.19, p < .01). There was a strategy levels of primary school administrators based on positive and significant correlation between RETR and OB the genders of substitute teachers (see Table 2). The results (r = .11, p < .01). In addition, there was a significant and showed that there were no significant differences on ALQ negative correlation between RETR and AV (r = -.16, total scores and ROCI-II total scores based on the genders p < .01). Lastly, the correlation between RETR and CO was of substitute teachers (p > .05). significant and positive (r = .10, p < .01). Table 3. Means. Standard Deviations and Correlation Coefficients for the Variables Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.SEAW 3.62 .57 1.00 2.RETR 3.49 .63 .06 1.00 3.ET 3.53 .52 .00 .05 1.00 4.UNAS 3.59 .53 -.07 .10* .32* 1.00 5.IN 3.48 .49 .04 -.19* -.01 -.00 1.00 6.OB 3.64 .58 .08 .11* -.00 -.02 -.08 1.00 7.DO 3.76 .57 -.00 -.00 .01 -.06 .03 .16* 1.00 8.AV 3.33 .54 -.04 -.16* -.00 -.07 .00 -.01 .00 1.00 9.CO 3.93 .50 .02 .10* .02 .05 -.01 -.01 .01 -.06 1.00 * p < .01. 1648 Applying School Administrators' Authentic Leadership Skills in Conflict Situations: The Perceptions of Substitute Teachers Table 4. The Results of the Multiple Linear Regression Analysis for the Prediction of Authentic Leadership Based on Integrating Variables B SE β t p Partial r Part r (Constant) 3.79 .26 - 14.34 .00 - - SEAW .05 .04 .05 1.26 .20 .05 .05 RETR -.15 .03 -.19 -4.23 .00 -.19 -.19 ET -.00 .04 -.00 -.12 .90 -.00 -.00 UNAS .02 .04 .02 .44 .65 .02 .02 F = 4.74; p < .01; R = .20; R2 = .04. Table 5. The Results of the Multiple Linear Regression Analysis for the Prediction of Authentic Leadership Based on Obliging Variables B SE β t p Partial r Part r (Constant) 3.14 .31 - 10.02 .00 - - SEAW .07 .04 .07 1.57 .11 .07 .07 RETR .10 .04 .10 2.31 .02 .10 .10 ET .00 .05 .00 .02 .97 .00 .00 UNAS -.03 .05 -.03 -.67 .49 -.03 -.03 F = 2.17; p < .01; R = .13; R2 = .01. Table 6. The Results of the Multiple Linear Regression Analysis for the Prediction of Authentic Leadership Based on Avoiding Variables B SE β t p Partial r Part r (Constant) 4.06 .29 - 14.01 .00 - - SEAW -.03 .04 -.03 -.82 .41 -.03 -.03 RETR -.13 .04 -.15 -3.35 .00 -.15 -.15 ET .03 .05 .03 .60 .54 .02 .02 UNAS -.06 .05 -.06 -1.32 .18 -.06 -.06 F = 3.71; p < .01; R = .17; R2 = .03. The results of the multiple linear regression analysis for predict only 1% of the total variance in the ROCI-II’s OB the prediction of authentic leadership based on ROCI-II’s subscale. The relative importance of the predictive variables subscale, IN are listed in Table 4. An examination of the in the IN subscale according to the standardized regression results listed in this table demonstrates the statistical coefficient (β) is as follows: RETR, SEAW, ET, and UNAS, importance of the prediction equation measuring the extent respectively. Analysis of the results related to the statistical to which the ALQ subscales predict the ROCI-II’s IN significance of the regression coefficients reveals that other subscale (R2 = .04, F = 4.74, p < .01). than RETR subscale, the remaining of the ALQ subscales The variables constituting the subscales of the ALQ are not statistically significant predictors of the ROCI-II’s predict 4% of the total variance in the ROCI-II’s IN subscale. OB subscale. The relative importance of the predictive variables in the IN The results of the multiple linear regression analysis for subscale according to the standardized regression coefficient the prediction of authentic leadership based on ROCI-II’s (β) is as follows: SEAW, UNAS, ET, and RETR, subscale, AV are listed in Table 6. An investigation of the respectively. Analysis of the findings related to the statistical results listed in this table demonstrates the statistical significance of the regression coefficients reveals that other importance of the prediction equation measuring the extent than RETR subscale, the remaining of the ALQ subscales are to which the ALQ subscales predict the ROCI-II’s AV not statistically significant predictors of the ROCI-II’s IN subscale (R2 = .03, F = 3.71, p < .01). subscale. The variables constituting the subscales of the ALQ Table 5 represents the findings of the multiple linear predict 3% of the total variance in the ROCI-II’s AV regression analysis for the prediction of authentic leadership subscale. The relative importance of the predictive variables based on ROCI-II’s subscale, OB. The results listed in Table in the IN subscale according to the standardized regression 5 shows the statistical importance of the prediction equation coefficient (β) is as follows: ET, SEAW, UNAS, and RETR, measuring the extent to which the ALQ subscales predict the respectively. Analysis of the findings related to the ROCI-II’s OB subscale (R2 = .01, F = 2.17, p < .01). statistical significance of the regression coefficients reveals The variables constituting the subscales of the ALQ that other than RETR subscale, the remaining of the ALQ Universal Journal of Educational Research 4(7): 1644-1651, 2016 1649 subscales are not statistically significant predictors of the management strategies did not differ based on the genders ROCI-II’s AV subscale. of substitute teachers. These results suggest that authentic leaders are committed to have similar relationships regardless of their genders. Within similar results, Macik‐ 4. Discussion Frey et al. [28] found that authentic leaders seek to locate the crucial factors that help them to prevent crisis and In this study, the relationships between conflict understand how to establish a positive and productive management strategies and authentic leadership behaviors working environment that embrace both males and females of primary school administrators were examined based on in the same setting. In similar studies, Harvey et al. [19] and the perceptions of substitute teachers. According to the McGuire et al. [30] suggested that authentic leaders have results, one may suggest that authentic leadership behaviors strong tendencies in creating and encouraging positive of primary school administrators may not be considered leadership actions throughout the organizations. important predictors of their conflict management When the relationships between primary school strategies. administrators’ authentic leadership and conflict The results of research suggested that the leadership management strategies based on the perceptions of behaviors primary school administrators were mostly substitute teachers were examined, it may be concluded that associated with SEAW. However, their leadership behaviors mostly, the subscales of ALQ and ROCI-II were not had the least association with RETR. This is consistent with significantly inter correlated. However, it is viable to the results of Avolio et al. [4], who reported that exhibiting suggest that there were a few significantly low correlations authentic leadership behaviors were all about being between the subscales of ALQ and ROCI-II. When the consistent about knowing oneself on individual base. subscales of ALQ and ROCI-II were examined, there was a Considering that being self-transparent may include sharing negative and significant correlation between RETR and IN not only positive and but also negative aspects of an and RETR and AV. From such results, it may be indicated individual to others, one may conclude that school leaders that as much as being transparent is one’s true self to other may feel reluctant to be self-transparent as it is likely that people, school leaders may have fears of making substantial their negative approaches may negatively affect teachers’ mistakes when showing interests in the concerns of other life in a school setting [16]. These results are also consistent teachers. Likewise, Gümüşeli [18] along with Ustun and with those by Avolio and Gardner [3], who indicated that Seren [45] suggested that when school leaders fail to handle although being self-transparent is about communicating conflict situations in schools, the consequences may be openly to individuals, such attitude may include both harmful and prevent student learning as well as teachers’ positive and negative effects on others’ life. motivation and encouragement. On the other hand, although When the conflict management strategies of primary the relationship between RETR and AV was negative and school administrators were examined, it was evident that significant in this study, Rahim [39] suggested otherwise. their conflict management strategies were mostly associated He indicated that if someone is unwilling about taking with DO. Based on these results, it may be suggested that actions for other people’s concerns, it may be concluded school leaders need to preserve a good standing and create that they tend to refrain from conflict situations. strong grounds in order to find effective solutions for the The study results also showed that the correlations problems associated with teaching and learning. In parallel between RETR and OB and RETR and CO were positive research, Lindelow and Scott [27] indicated that people in and significant. Based on such results, it may be suggested charge may need to take rigorous measures to prevent crisis that school leaders, who feel obliged or tend to compromise as such situations may be destructive for certain individuals in conflict situations have levels of concerns ranging from or groups. That being said, the leaders may have to take intermediate to low. This suggests that primary school dominating measures on issues to be effective problem administrators avoid creating misunderstandings or solvers during the conflict situations [e.g., 7, 32]. resentments among teachers [e.g., 5, 18, 26]. Additionally, On the other hand, the study results suggested that the Ustun and Seren [45] concluded that school leaders need to conflict management strategies of primary school be aware of the fact and beware of intervening conflict administrators had the least association with AV. Based on situations that people in an organization may have different the results, it may be concluded that school leaders did not worldviews as they come from different cultures. As a result, refrain from intervening conflict situations to exhibit their the significant and fairly low correlations between authentic leadership skills. These results are consistent with the leadership and conflict management approaches of primary results of Miklas and Kleiner [32], who reported that as school administrators may imply that as school conflicts may be irrepressible in educational institutions, administrators exhibit some leadership skills, to some extent, school leaders should not avoid to take strong actions to they interfere with the concerns of teachers in order to find handle deteriorating issues with positive problem solving effective solutions. manners [20]. Present research also found that most of the authentic The results of the study showed that the primary school leadership attitudes of primary school administrators were administrators’ authentic leadership behaviors and conflict significantly predicted by IN, OB, and AV while DO and 1650 Applying School Administrators' Authentic Leadership Skills in Conflict Situations: The Perceptions of Substitute Teachers CO were non-significant predictors of ALQ. 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