Understanding Implicit Bias What Educators Should Know By Cheryl Staats In this article, I seek to shed light on the dynamics of implicit bias with an eye toward educators. After introducing the concept A s a profession, teaching is full of well-intentioned indi- and the science undergirding it, I focus on its implications for viduals deeply committed to seeing all children suc- educators and suggest ways they can mitigate its effects. ceed. Touching innumerable lives in direct and indirect The Unconscious Mind ways, educators uniquely recognize that our future rests on the shoulders of young people and that investing in their Psychologists estimate that our brains are capable of processing education, health, and overall well-being benefits society as a approximately 11 million bits of information every second.1 Given whole, both now and into the future. the tremendous amount of information that inundates this star- This unwavering desire to ensure the best for children is pre- tlingly complex organ in any given moment, many researchers cisely why educators should become aware of the concept of have sought to understand the nuances of our remarkable cogni- implicit bias: the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our under- tive functioning. In his 2011 tome on cognition, Thinking, Fast and standing, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. Slow, Daniel Kahneman articulates a widely accepted framework R A Operating outside of our conscious awareness, implicit biases are for understanding human cognitive functioning by delineating ALAZ pervasive, and they can challenge even the most well-intentioned our mental processing into two parts: System 1 and System 2.2 R S HE and egalitarian-minded individuals, resulting in actions and out- System 1 handles cognition that occurs outside of conscious UT O comes that do not necessarily align with explicit intentions. awareness. This system operates automatically and extremely Y S fast. For example, let’s say you stop your car at a red light. When ONS B CRahceer yaln Sdta Eatthsn isic ait sye,n hioour sreedse aatr Ochheiro a Stt tahtee KUinrwivaerns iItnys.titute for the Study of ttihoen l.i gThhta tnukrsn tso g trheee snp, eyeodu a knndo ewffi toc ipernoccye oefd S tyhsrtoeumg 1h, tehxep ienrtieernsceecd- ILLUSTRATI AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2015–2016 29 drivers automatically understand that green means go, and so judges.6 Indeed, educators are also susceptible to the influence of this mental association requires no conscious or effortful these unconscious biases. thought. Implicit Bias in Education In contrast, System 2 is conscious processing. It’s what we use for mental tasks that require concentration, such as completing Research on implicit bias has identified several conditions in a tax form. Rather than being automatic and fast, this undertaking which individuals are most likely to rely on their unconscious requires effortful, deliberate concentration. System 1 associations. These include situations that involve Together, these two systems help us make sense of the world. ambiguous or incomplete information; the presence of time con- What is fascinating, though, is how much our cognition relies on straints; and circumstances in which our cognitive control may System 1. Of the millions of possible pieces of information we can be compromised, such as through fatigue or having a lot on our process each second, most neuroscientists agree that the vast minds.7 Given that teachers encounter many, if not all, of these majority of our cognitive processing occurs outside of our con- conditions through the course of a school day, it is unsurprising scious awareness.3 Besides its vastness, System 1 cognitive pro- that implicit biases may be contributing to teachers’ actions and cessing is also notable because it helps us understand that many decisions. This unwavering desire to ensure the best for children is precisely why educators should become aware of the concept of implicit bias. of the mental associations that affect how we perceive and act are Let’s consider a few examples in the context of school operating implicitly (i.e., unconsciously). As such, System 1 is discipline. responsible for the associations known as implicit biases. First, classifying behavior as good or bad and then assigning a Because the implicit associations we hold arise outside of consequence is not a simple matter. All too often, behavior is in conscious awareness, implicit biases do not necessarily align with the eye of the beholder. Many of the infractions for which students our explicit beliefs and stated intentions. This means that even are disciplined have a subjective component, meaning that the individuals who profess egalitarian intentions and try to treat all situation is a bit ambiguous. Thus, how an educator interprets a individuals fairly can still unknowingly act in ways that reflect situation can affect whether the behavior merits discipline, and their implicit—rather than their explicit—biases. Thus, even well- if so, to what extent. intentioned individuals can act in ways that produce inequitable Infractions such as “disruptive behavior,” “disrespect,” and outcomes for different groups. “excessive noise,” for example, are ambiguous and dependent on Moreover, because implicit biases are unconscious and invol- context, yet they are frequently provided as reasons for student untarily activated as part of System 1, we are not even aware that discipline.8 That is not to say that some form of discipline is they exist, yet they can have a tremendous impact on decision unwarranted in these situations, or that all disciplinary circum- making. A large body of social science evidence has shown that stances are subjective, as certainly many have objective compo- implicit biases can be activated by any number of various identi- nents. However, these subjective infractions constitute a very ties we perceive in others, such as race, ethnicity, gender, or age. large portion of disciplinary incidents. Since these robust associations are a critical component of our There are no standardized ways of assessing many infractions, System 1 processing, everyone has implicit biases, regardless of such as disobedient or disruptive behavior, though schools do race, ethnicity, gender, or age. No one is immune. Consequently, attempt to delineate some parameters through codes of conduct the range of implicit bias implications for individuals in a wide and by outlining associated consequences. Yet subjectivity can range of professions—not just education—is vast. For example, still come into play. Teachers’ experiences and automatic uncon- researchers have documented implicit biases in healthcare pro- scious associations can shape their interpretation of situations fessionals,4 law enforcement officers,5 and even individuals whose that merit discipline, and can even contribute to discipline dis- careers require avowed commitments to impartiality, such as parities based on a student’s race. 30 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2015–2016 One study of discipline disparities9 found that students of evidence exists to the contrary. The following example is from the color were more likely to be sent to the office and face other context of employee performance evaluations, which explored disciplinary measures for offenses such as disrespect or exces- this dynamic. Relevant parallels also exist for K–12 teachers evalu- sive noise, which are subjective, while white students were more ating their students’ work. likely to be sent to the office for objective infractions, such as A 2014 study explored how confirmation bias can uncon- smoking or vandalism. (For more about discipline disparities, sciously taint the evaluation of work that employees produce. see the article on page 4.) Thus, in disciplinary situations that Researchers created a fictitious legal memo that contained 22 are a bit ambiguous (What qualifies as disrespect? How loud is different, deliberately planted errors. These errors included minor too loud?), educators should be aware that their implicit associa- spelling and grammatical errors, as well as factual, analytical, and tions may be contributing to their decisions without their con- technical writing errors. The exact same memo was distributed to scious awareness or consent. law firm partners under the guise of a “writing analysis study,”14 Second, implicit attitudes toward specific racial groups can and they were asked to edit and evaluate the memo. unconsciously affect disciplinary decisions. For example, exten- Half of the memos listed the author as African American while sive research has documented pervasive implicit associations that the remaining portion listed the author as Caucasian. Findings link African Americans, particularly males, to stereotypes such as aggression, criminality, or danger, even when explicit beliefs con- tradict these views.10 In education, these implicit associations can taint percep- tions of the discipline severity required to ensure that the mis- behaving student understands what he or she did wrong. In short, these unconscious associations can mean the difference between one student receiving a warning for a confrontation and Many of the infractions for which another student being sent to school security personnel. In the words of researcher Carla R. Monroe, “Many teachers may not students are disciplined have a explicitly connect their disciplinary reactions to negative per- subjective component. ceptions of Black males, yet systematic trends in disproportion- ality suggest that teachers may be implicitly guided by stereotypical perceptions that African American boys require greater control than their peers and are unlikely to respond to nonpunitive measures.”11 A recent study from Stanford University sheds further light on this dynamic by highlighting how racial disparities in disci- pline can occur even when black and white students behave similarly.12 In the experiment, researchers showed a racially indicated that memo evaluations hinged on the perceived race of diverse group of female K–12 teachers the school records of a the author. When the author was listed as African American, the fictitious middle school student who had misbehaved twice; evaluators found more of the embedded errors and rated the both infractions were minor and unrelated. Requesting that the memo as lower quality than those who believed the author was teachers imagine working at this school, researchers asked a Caucasian. Researchers concluded that these findings suggest range of questions related to how teachers perceived and would unconscious confirmation bias; despite the intention to be unbi- respond to the student’s infractions. While the student discipline ased, “we see more errors when we expect to see errors, and we scenarios were identical, researchers manipulated the fictitious see fewer errors when we do not expect to see errors.”15 student’s name; some teachers reviewed the record of a student While this study focused on the evaluation of a legal memo, it given a stereotypically black name (e.g., Deshawn or Darnell) is not a stretch of the imagination to consider the activation of this while others reviewed the record of a student with a stereotypi- implicit dynamic in grading student essays or evaluating other cally white name (e.g., Jake or Greg). forms of subjective student performance. Confirmation bias rep- Results indicated that from the first infraction to the second, resents yet another way in which implicit biases can challenge the teachers were more likely to escalate the disciplinary response best of explicit intentions. to the second infraction when the student was perceived to be Finally, implicit biases can also shape teacher expectations black as opposed to white. Moreover, a second part of the study, of student achievement. For example, a 2010 study examined with a larger, more diverse sample that included both male and teachers’ implicit and explicit ethnic biases, finding that their female teachers, found that infractions by a black student were implicit—not explicit—biases were responsible for different more likely to be viewed as connected, meaning that the black expectations of achievement for students from different ethnic student’s misbehavior was seen as more indicative of a pattern, backgrounds.16 than when the same two infractions were committed by a white While these examples are a select few among many, together student.13 they provide a glimpse into how implicit biases can have detri- Another way in which implicit bias can operate in education mental effects for students, regardless of teachers’ explicit goals. is through confirmation bias: the unconscious tendency to seek This raises the question: How can we better align our implicit information that confirms our preexisting beliefs, even when biases with the explicit values we uphold? AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2015–2016 31 Mitigating the Influence of Implicit Bias associations.18 There are IATs that assess both attitudes (i.e., positive Recognizing that implicit biases can yield inequitable outcomes or negative emotions toward various groups) and stereotypes (i.e., even among well-intentioned individuals, a significant portion of how quickly someone can connect a group to relevant stereotypes implicit bias research has explored how individuals can change about that group at an implicit level). their implicit associations—in effect “reprogramming” their men- Educators can begin to address their implicit biases by taking tal associations so that unconscious biases better align with the Implicit Association Test. Doing so will enable them to become explicit convictions. Thanks to the malleable nature of our brains, consciously aware of some of the unconscious associations they researchers have identified a few approaches that, often with time may harbor. Research suggests that this conscious awareness of and repetition, can help inhibit preexisting implicit biases in favor one’s own implicit biases is a critical first step for counteracting of more egalitarian alternatives. their influence.19 This awareness is especially crucial for educators With implicit biases operating outside of our conscious aware- to help ensure that their explicit intentions to help students learn ness and inaccessible through introspection, at first glance it and reach their full potential are not unintentionally thwarted by might seem difficult to identify any that we may hold. Fortunately, implicit biases. researchers have identified several approaches for assessing these By identifying any discrepancies that may exist between con- unconscious associations, one of which is the Implicit Association scious ideals and automatic implicit associations, individuals can Educators can begin to address their implicit biases by taking the Implicit Association Test to become aware of unconscious associations they may harbor. Test (IAT). Debuting in 1998, this free online test measures the take steps to bring those two into better alignment. One approach relative strength of associations between pairs of concepts. for changing implicit associations identified by researchers is Designed to tap into unconscious System 1 associations, the IAT intergroup contact: meaningfully engaging with individuals is a response latency (i.e., reaction time) measure that assesses whose identities (e.g., race, ethnicity, religion) differ from your implicit associations through this key idea: when two concepts own. Certain conditions exist for optimal effects, such as equal are highly associated, test takers will be faster at pairing those status within the situation, a cooperative setting, and working concepts (and make fewer mistakes doing so) than they will when toward common goals.20 By getting to know people who differ two concepts are not as highly associated.* from you on a real, personal level, you can begin to build new To illustrate, consider this example. Most people find the task associations about the groups those individuals represent and of pairing flower types (e.g., orchid, daffodil, tulip) with positive break down existing implicit associations.21 words (e.g., pleasure, happy, cheer) easier than they do pairing Another approach that research has determined may help flower types with negative words (e.g., rotten, ugly, filth). Because change implicit associations is exposure to counter-stereotypical flowers typically have a positive connotation, people can quickly exemplars: individuals who contradict widely held stereotypes. link flowers to positive terms and make few mistakes in doing so. Some studies have shown that exposure to these exemplars may In contrast, words such as types of insects (e.g., ants, cockroaches, help individuals begin to automatically override their preexisting mosquitoes) are likely to be easier for most people to pair with biases.22 Examples of counter-stereotypical exemplars may those negative terms than with positive ones.17 include male nurses, female scientists, African American judges, While this example is admittedly simplistic, these ideas laid the and others who defy stereotypes. foundation for versions of the IAT that assess more complex social This approach for challenging biases is valuable not just for issues, such as race, gender, age, and sexual orientation, among educators but also for the students they teach, as some scholars others. Millions of people have taken the IAT, and extensive research suggest that photographs and décor that expose individuals to has largely upheld the IAT as a valid and reliable measure of implicit counter-stereotypical exemplars can activate new mental associa- tions.23 While implicit associations may not change immediately, using counter-stereotypical images for classroom posters and *Implicit Association Tests are publicly available through Project Implicit at http://implicit.harvard.edu. other visuals may serve this purpose. 32 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2015–2016 Beyond changing cognitive associations, another strategy for hold, we recognize that our life experiences may unconsciously mitigating implicit biases that relates directly to school discipline shape our perceptions of others in ways that we may or may not is data collection. Because implicit biases function outside of consciously desire, and if the latter, we can take action to mitigate conscious awareness, identifying their influence can be challeng- the influence of those associations. ing. Gathering meaningful data can bring to light trends and pat- In light of the compelling body of implicit bias scholarship, terns in disparate treatment of individuals and throughout an teachers, administrators, and even policymakers are increasingly institution that may otherwise go unnoticed. considering the role of unconscious bias in disciplinary situations. In the context of school discipline, relevant data may include For example, the federal school discipline guidance jointly the student’s grade, the perceived infraction, the time of day it released by the U.S. departments of Education and Justice in Janu- occurred, the name(s) of referring staff, and other relevant details ary 2014 not only mentions implicit bias as a factor that may affect and objective information related to the resulting disciplinary the administration of school discipline, it also encourages school consequence. Information like this can facilitate a large-scale personnel to receive implicit bias training. (For more information review of discipline measures and patterns and whether any con- on that guidance, see page 12.) Speaking not only to the impor- nections to implicit biases may emerge.24 Moreover, tracking tance of identifying implicit bias but also to mitigating its effects, discipline data over time and keeping implicit bias in mind can the federal guidance asserts that this training can “enhance staff In education, the real-life implications of implicit biases can create invisible barriers to opportunity and achievement for some students. help create a school- or districtwide culture of accountability. awareness of their implicit or unconscious biases and the harms Finally, in the classroom, educators taking enough time to associated with using or failing to counter racial and ethnic ste- carefully process a situation before making a decision can mini- reotypes.”27 Of course, teachers who voluntarily choose to pursue mize implicit bias. Doing so, of course, is easier said than done, this training and explore this issue on their own can also generate given that educators are constantly pressed for time, face myriad interest among their colleagues, leading to more conversations challenges, and need crucial support from administrators to effec- and awareness. tively manage student behavior. Accumulated research evidence indicates that implicit bias As noted earlier, System 1 unconscious associations operate powerfully explains the persistence of many societal inequities, extremely quickly. As a result, in circumstances where individuals not just in education but also in other domains, such as criminal face time constraints or have a lot on their minds, their brains tend justice, healthcare, and employment.28 While the notion of being to rely on those fast and automatic implicit associations. Research biased is one that few individuals are eager to embrace, extensive suggests that reducing cognitive load and allowing more time to social science and neuroscience research has connected individu- process information can lead to less biased decision making.25 In als’ System 1 unconscious associations to disparate outcomes, terms of school discipline, this can mean allowing educators time even among individuals who staunchly profess egalitarian to reflect on the disciplinary situation at hand rather than make a intentions. hasty decision.26 In education, the real-life implications of implicit biases can create invisible barriers to opportunity and achievement for some W hile implicit biases can affect any moment of deci- students—a stark contrast to the values and intentions of educa- sion making, these unconscious associations tors and administrators who dedicate their professional lives to should not be regarded as character flaws or other their students’ success. Thus, it is critical for educators to identify indicators of whether someone is a “good person” any discrepancies that may exist between their conscious ideals or not. Having the ability to use our System 1 cognition to make and unconscious associations so that they can mitigate the effects effortless, lightning-fast associations, such as knowing that a of those implicit biases, thereby improving student outcomes and green traffic light means go, is crucial to our cognition. allowing students to reach their full potential. ☐ Rather, when we identify and reflect on the implicit biases we (Endnotes on page 43) AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2015–2016 33 SHARE MY LESSON Webinars on Supportive School Discipline WHEN DISCIPLINE PROBLEMS ARISE, where preventing student discipline issues later. can educators turn? The AFT’s own Share Many prekindergarten and kindergarten My Lesson (www.sharemylesson.com). 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A But Share My Lesson’s webinars provide great way educators can keep discipline easy-to-follow tips and strategies for every problems at bay is by getting to know educator. The best part? Educators receive students. The webinar Connect with Your one professional development credit for Students Right from the Start (www.bit.ly/ each webinar they complete. 1WtOxmF), by author Julia G. Thompson, –THE SHARE MY LESSON TEAM Understanding Implicit Bias and Paul G. Davies, “Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954). Allport also recognizes a fourth Processing,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 condition for optimal intergroup contact, which is authority (Continued from page 33) (2004): 876–893. sanctioning the contact. 11. Carla R. Monroe, “Why Are ‘Bad Boys’ Always Black? 21. Thomas F. Pettigrew and Linda R. Tropp, “A Meta-Analytic Causes of Disproportionality in School Discipline and Test of Intergroup Contact Theory,” Journal of Personality and Endnotes Recommendations for Change,” The Clearing House: A Journal Social Psychology 90 (2006): 751–783. 1. Tor Nørretranders, The User Illusion: Cutting Consciousness of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas 79 (2005): 46. 22. Nilanjana Dasgupta and Anthony G. Greenwald, “On the Down to Size (New York: Penguin, 1999). 12. Jason A. Okonofua and Jennifer L. Eberhardt, “Two Strikes: Malleability of Automatic Attitudes: Combating Automatic 2. Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Race and the Disciplining of Young Students,” Psychological Prejudice with Images of Admired and Disliked Individuals,” Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011). Science 26 (2015): 617–624. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 3. See, for example, George A. Miller, “The Magical Number 13. Okonofua and Eberhardt, “Two Strikes.” 800–814; and Nilanjana Dasgupta and Shaki Asgari, ”Seeing Is Believing: Exposure to Counterstereotypic Women Leaders and Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for 14. Arin N. Reeves, Written in Black & White: Exploring Its Effect on the Malleability of Automatic Gender Stereotyp- Processing Information,” Psychological Review 63, no. 2 Confirmation Bias in Racialized Perceptions of Writing Skills ing,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40 (2004): (1956): 81–97. (Chicago: Nextions, 2014). 642–658. 4. See, for example, Janice A. Sabin, Brian A. Nosek, Anthony 15. Reeves, Written in Black & White, 6. 23. Jerry Kang, Mark Bennett, Devon Carbado, et al., “Implicit G. Greenwald, and Frederick P. Rivara, “Physicians’ Implicit and Explicit Attitudes about Race by MD Race, Ethnicity, and 16. Linda van den Bergh, Eddie Denessen, Lisette Hornstra, Bias in the Courtroom,” UCLA Law Review 59 (2012): Gender,” Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved Marinus Voeten, and Rob W. Holland, “The Implicit Prejudiced 1124–1186. 20 (2009): 896–913. Attitudes of Teachers: Relations to Teacher Expectations and 24. Kent McIntosh, Erik J. Girvan, Robert H. Horner, and Keith the Ethnic Achievement Gap,” American Educational Research Smolkowski, “Education Not Incarceration: A Conceptual 5. See, for example, Joshua Correll, Bernadette Park, Charles Journal 47 (2010): 497–527. Model for Reducing Racial and Ethnic Disproportionality in M. Judd, Bernd Wittenbrink, Melody S. Sadler, and Tracie Keesee, “Across the Thin Blue Line: Police Officers and Racial 17. This example is from Anthony G. Greenwald, Debbie E. School Discipline,” Journal of Applied Research on Children: Bias in the Decision to Shoot,” Journal of Personality and Social McGhee, and Jordan L. K. Schwartz, “Measuring Individual Informing Policy for Children at Risk 5, no. 2 (2014): art. 4. Psychology 92 (2007): 1006–1023. Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test,” 25. Diana J. Burgess, “Are Providers More Likely to Contribute Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): to Healthcare Disparities under High Levels of Cognitive Load? 6. See, for example, Jeffrey J. Rachlinski, Sheri Lynn Johnson, 1464–1480. How Features of the Healthcare Setting May Lead to Biases in Andrew J. Wistrich, and Chris Guthrie, “Does Unconscious Racial Bias Affect Trial Judges?,” Notre Dame Law Review 84 18. Brian A. Nosek, Anthony G. Greenwald, and Mahzarin R. Medical Decision Making,” Medical Decision Making 30 (2009): 1195–1246. Banaji, “The Implicit Association Test at Age 7: A Methodologi- (2010): 246–257. cal and Conceptual Review,” in Social Psychology and the 26. Prudence Carter, Russell Skiba, Mariella Arredondo, and 7. Marianne Bertrand, Dolly Chugh, and Sendhil Mullainathan, Unconscious: The Automaticity of Higher Mental Processes, ed. Mica Pollock, You Can’t Fix What You Don’t Look At: “Implicit Discrimination,” American Economic Review 95, no. John A. Bargh (New York: Psychology Press, 2007), 265–292. Acknowledging Race in Addressing Racial Discipline 2 (2005): 94–98. 19. Patricia G. Devine, Patrick S. Forscher, Anthony J. Austin, Disparities, Disciplinary Disparities Briefing Paper Series 8. See, for example, Cheryl Staats and Danya Contractor, Race and William T. L. Cox, “Long-Term Reduction in Implicit Bias: A (Bloomington, IN: Equity Project at Indiana University, 2014). and Discipline in Ohio Schools: What the Data Say (Columbus, Prejudice Habit-Breaking Intervention,” Journal of 27. U.S. Department of Education, Guiding Principles: A OH: Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity, 2014). Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012): 1267–1278; and Resource Guide for Improving School Climate and Discipline 9. Russell J. Skiba, Robert S. Michael, Abra Carroll Nardo, and John F. Dovidio, Kerry Kawakami, Craig Johnson, Brenda (Washington, DC: Department of Education, 2014), 17. Reece L. Paterson, “The Color of Discipline: Sources of Racial Johnson, and Adaiah Howard, “On the Nature of Prejudice: and Gender Disproportionality in School Punishment,” Urban Automatic and Controlled Processes,” Journal of Experimental 28. For more on implicit bias and its effects in various Review 34 (2002): 317–342. Social Psychology 33 (1997): 510–540. professions, see the Kirwan Institute’s annual State of the Science: Implicit Bias Review publication at www.kirwan 10. Jennifer L. Eberhardt, Phillip Atiba Goff, Valerie J. Purdie, 20. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, institute.osu.edu/initiatives/implicit-bias-review. AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2015–2016 43