ppaarrttiicciippaattiioonn oovveerr ttiimmee Keeping Youth Engaged from Middle School to High School by Sarah Deschenes, Priscilla Little, Jean Grossman, and Amy Arbreton Adolescence is a period of rapid developmental changes. how quickly the needs and interests of adolescents shift Only in the early years of childhood do individuals expe- along with their developmental changes. Program staff rience such a brisk pace of change. However, all too of- know—and studies have documented—that, as children ten, out-of-school time (OST) programs do not recognize enter adolescence, their participation in OST programs SArAH DESCHENES, Ph.D., is senior researcher at Harvard Fam- organizations, providing intellectual leadership, and conducting ac- ily Research Project (HFRP). She has been conducting research on tivities to ensure the long-term sustainability of HFRP. expanded learning, youth advocacy, youth development, and com- JEAN GroSSMAN, Ph.D., is a senior research fellow at Public/Private munity initiatives for 15 years. Before joining HFRP, Sarah was a con- Ventures, an action-oriented social policy think-tank; she also teaches sultant conducting education and youth policy research; she has also at Princeton University in the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and In- been a postdoctoral fellow at the John W. Gardner Center for Youth ternational Affairs. She is an expert on afterschool and youth mentoring and Their Communities at Stanford University. She is co-author of Be- programs and on evaluation design. She recently co-authored numer- tween Movement and Establishment: Organizations Advocating for ous reports and articles on OST programs including The Cost of Quality Youth (Stanford University Press, 2009); her work has appeared in a Out-of-School Time Programs, The Evaluation of Enhanced Academic variety of journals and edited volumes. Instruction in After-School Programs, and A Review of What Youth Pro- PriSCiLLA LittLE is the core area director for Harvard Family Re- grams Do to Increase the Connectedness of Youth with Adults. search Project’s out-of-school time (OST) research and evaluation AMy ArBrEtoN, Ph.D., is a senior research fellow at Public/ work, leading research teams to investigate policy-relevant OST is- Private Ventures. She has more than two decades of experience sues such as improving participation, addressing program quality, evaluating youth development programs and conducting research building OST systems, and supporting out-of-school learning part- on child development including More Time For Teens: Understand- nerships. She also serves as the associate director of HFRP, managing ing Teen Participation—Frequency, Intensity and Duration in Boys & and coordinating research activities, participating in resource devel- Girls Clubs and Making Every Day Count: Boys & Girls Clubs’ Role in opment and funder outreach, cultivating relationships with national Promoting Positive Outcomes for Teens. drops off (American Youth Policy Forum, 2006; then detail some of the findings that indicate the impor- Lauver, Little, & Weiss, 2004; Sipe, Ma, & Gambone, tance of addressing developmental differences as a par- 1998). To attract older youth, programs need to offer ticipation strategy. experiences for teens that look and feel different from those designed for elementary school children. This Study Overview article, drawing on data collected in a larger study of While many studies have broadly addressed issues of practices that engage older youth in OST programs OST participation for older youth or have focused on ei- over time (Deschenes et al., 2010), shares insights ther middle school youth or high school youth, our re- about programs that successfully engage older youth cent study of OST participation (Deschenes et al., 2010) and the strategies they use to maintain high participa- compared high-participation programs for both middle tion rates. school and high school youth to identify which strategies Developmentally, older youth are becoming “not and features are associated with each age group and how children.” Adolescents’ pathways programs change their strategies to are characterized by a set of devel- support these adolescents over opmental tasks that prepare them In our study, attention time. for adulthood: They are learning to The study used a mixed meth- to developmental make decisions independently from ods design, combining OST partici- differences emerged as their parents, exploring new roles pation data on middle and high and identities, forming deeper central to the strategies school youth and program survey bonds with peers, and preparing that kept middle and data with interview data from site themselves for careers (National visits in six cities: Chicago; high school youth Research Council & Institute of Cincinnati; New York City; engaged in OST programs Medicine, 2002). Given the poten- Providence, RI; San Francisco; and tial benefits of OST participation, over time. Washington, DC. These cities were and recognizing the challenges of chosen because each has a citywide participation for older youth, re- initiative focused on supporting ac- searchers and practitioners share a keen interest in iden- cess to and participation in OST. We obtained survey tifying ways to engage adolescents in structured activities data from 198 programs and interview data from 28 pro- outside of school that can provide them with important grams;1 this article is based on the latter sample. developmental opportunities. The primary focus of our research was to identify the OST programs that are successful in engaging older program- and city-level strategies and features that keep youth—in our study and in others—are geared toward youth coming to programs over time, specifically for 12 supporting these developmental tasks, providing the or more months. In the larger sample of 198 programs, personal and social assets that help youth successfully we found, through regression analysis of survey data, navigate through adolescence and into early adulthood that a set of program characteristics do seem particularly (National Research Council & Institute of Medicine, important in retaining youth for this long, distinguishing 2002). However, older youth also need programming programs with higher retention from those with lower that will change with them and support them in new de- retention:2 velopmental stages (Mahoney, Vandell, Simpkins, & • Being a community-based rather than a school-based Zarrett, 2009). OST program providers, therefore, need program to recognize that adolescence entails several distinct • Serving 100 or more youth per year stages and calibrate their programming accordingly. • Offering many opportunities for youth involvement In our study, attention to developmental differences and leadership emerged as central to the strategies that kept middle • Having staff stay informed about youths’ lives inside and high school youth engaged in OST programs over and outside the program time. This article sheds light on how a set of school- • Having regular staff meetings to discuss program- and community-based programs with high rates of par- related issues ticipation addressed these changing needs. We first present an overview of the larger study and a descrip- Analyses of the survey data revealed that these key tion of the characteristics of the program sample. We characteristics distinguishing high- versus low-retention 2 Afterschool Matters Fall 2010 table 1. Program Characteristics School-based 46% Study Sample Serving 100 or more youth 52% The programs we report on here were selected to in- Age of participants clude geographic distribution across the city, a mix of program activities and goals, and service primarily to Elementary school and older students 42% low-income youth as defined by percentage of free or reduced-price lunch participants. Because we wanted Middle school students only 31% to interview providers of programs with high partici- pation rates, the minimum participation rate among Middle school and high school students 12% this interview sample was 60 percent, compared to a High school students only 12% minimum of 44 percent for the larger survey sample.3 For both middle school and high school programs, the High school and post high school students 4% average participation rate was 79 percent, compared to an average of 65 percent across all programs in our Number of years in operation larger sample. 1–2 32% Among the 28 programs in our interview sample, as shown in Table 1, 18 were school-based and 10 3–4 12% were community-based programs; 14 focused on middle-school-aged youth, 8 on high-school-aged 5+ 56% youth, and 6 on a combination of the two. Just over half were larger programs serving 100 or more youth. Operating school year only 42% Most served older youth exclusively without elemen- Open 5+ days a week 69% tary school participants. Over half had been in exis- tence for five or more years; almost a quarter (23 per- Only program in its area with its particular focus 23% cent) were the only programs in their area with their particular focus. programs were the same for middle school programs and high school programs. However, the qualitative data table 2. youth Served from our subset of high-participation programs allowed Eligible for free lunch 87% us to explore programs’ approaches to retaining middle school youth compared to high school youth at a deeper Race or ethnicity level of detail, while also providing additional insights that we could not gather from the survey or databases African American 57% about how programs approached working with middle Latino/a or Hispanic 21% school and high school youth. For our analysis of program interviews, based on a Asian 10% grounded theory approach (see Strauss & Corbin, 2007), we focused on the major themes that emerged across White 6% programs related to the successes and challenges of achieving high participation and retention rates and what Mixed race 4% program practices or features were linked to these efforts; Native American 0.1% we also analyzed program data to understand how pro- grams participate in citywide OST initiatives. We coded Other 1% interviews using codes developed from a literature re- view and our early findings, using an iterative process to Girls 51% identify and refine themes and patterns in the data. At Attending other OST activities 24% the same time, we compared the qualitative findings to our survey analysis to create a fuller picture of which With siblings in program 32% practices help retain adolescents. Deschenes, Little, Grossman, & Arbreton parTIcIpaTIOn OvEr TIME 3 A vast majority (87 percent) of youth in these pro- tities, and creating tighter bonds with peers (Frederick & grams were eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. Over Eccles, 2008; National Research Council & Institute of 90 percent of the youth served were non-White; program Medicine, 2002). During these years, developing close participants were balanced about evenly between boys relationships with adults beyond their families also be- (49 percent) and girls (51 percent). Programs reported comes important (Eccles & Roeser, 2009). that less than one-quarter of their youth attended other To support the growing independence and curiosity OST activities and that about one-third had siblings in of early adolescence, developmental research suggests that the same program. Table 2 shows the characteristics of learning contexts for middle schoolers should provide au- the youth served by the programs we studied. tonomy and challenge—emphasizing activities that support growth in reasoning; opportunities for mentoring, leader- Older Youth, OST, and Developmental ship, and meaningful input; exposure to a wide range of Pathways career possibilities; and the social and communication Providers we interviewed recognized that they need to be skills to make good choices (National Research Council & prepared for developmental changes as youth move from Institute of Medicine, 2002). Programs can also support elementary school to middle school this developmental stage by provid- to high school, and that, if they don’t ing what one researcher calls “ave- providers noted that even anticipate what these changes mean nues for short-term success” (Balfanz, for their programs, they will lose within the middle school 2009)—activities such as debate, participants’ interest. But they also years, there were two drama, robotics, or chess for students emphasized that each young person who are strong in these areas and can distinct developmental is on an individual path. As a direc- excel in ways they might not be able groups: sixth- and seventh- tor of a Washington, DC, program to in other activities. noted, “In order to reach a kid, graders and eighth- Program providers in our sam- you’ve got to meet them where they graders. providers ple observed, however, that middle are. And if you can meet them where school students are particularly diffi- recognized that eighth- they are, then you can take them cult to recruit. Because these youth grade participants needed somewhere else.” As intensive as are in the process of developing au- this individual attention may be, something “older,” tonomy, they are less inclined to par- providers noted that it is critical to specifically geared toward ticipate in adult-supervised activities participants’ development, at times during nonschool time—they might their transition into high compensating for lack of attention want to play basketball at a local school, or they would not at school or at home. Program pro- court, but not in an afterschool pro- continue in the program. viders reported using many strate- gram. They are also less inclined to gies for this individualized approach break from their peer groups to par- to working with youth: Their staff ticipate in program activities. Other members developed individual relationships with youth, providers noted that middle school is a time when stu- they often allowed for flexibility in scheduling and ex- dents begin to disengage from school and that detachment pectations, and they provided a variety of opportunities from OST activities often accompanies this process. Staff to allow youth to excel. told us that participation was particularly tricky for stu- In addition to their understanding of the develop- dents who were over-age for their class in school or other- mental continuum of adolescence, the providers we in- wise lagging behind their peers. terviewed emphasized different program strategies, dis- Interestingly, providers noted that even within the cussed below, for working with middle and high school middle school years, there were two distinct developmen- youth, based on their respective developmental stages. tal groups: sixth- and seventh- graders and eighth-graders. Providers recognized that eighth-grade participants Middle School and OST: Peer Relationships, needed something “older,” specifically geared toward their Curiosity, and Structure transition into high school, or they would not continue in Middle-school-aged youth are gaining independence, the program. beginning to make their own decisions about what to do The following are some strategies that programs in with their time outside of school, forming stronger iden- this study used to engage middle school students. 4 Afterschool Matters Fall 2010 Time with Friends constructive outlets. One provider described the middle Program providers emphasized in interviews that time for school period as “a tipping point” in which youth are still socializing is developmentally important and appropriate willing to try new things under the right circumstances. for middle school youth. Students who may have no recess Middle school youth need to feel supported and emo- during the school day or have to sit through a silent lunch tionally safe. With some youth beginning to disengage need structured time for peer interactions after school. from school, OST providers pointed out, “it’s the last Programs in our sample structured their middle school chance to engage them.” Providers also used the peer activities to ensure that youth had time to do homework group to facilitate participants’ willingness to try new ac- with friends, connect with friends before joining activities, tivities. One provider in Providence described how youth or work with friends in small-group activities. Some pro- helped their peers build skills: viders did so primarily by giving youth time to talk. Others [If] someone is interested, but that skill for them described creating team-building exercises for participants, isn’t that strong, we can group them in an activity— because participation in OST programs is an opportunity maybe it’s costuming. “Well, I know how to sew, and to meet new friends and connect with youth who have I can do this activity, and I can put this together.” similar interests. Such opportunities to develop peer rela- “I’m a really good graphic artist, but Suzy’s kind of tionships in safe, structured environments can help youth ‘eh’ about drawing, I can teach her how to do this.” create positive peer influences and develop positive social “I’m really good at reading and memorizing my lines. skills. Maybe I can teach you how to memorize your As one theater program director noted, although lines.” adult-structured learning is important, peer-to-peer edu- Middle school is also a time to try out different cation is also a powerful tool with this age group, espe- identities. Through activities such as acting, youth can cially when developing important play out characteristics or person- life skills such as communicating ef- ality traits toward which they Access to afterschool fectively and giving and receiving would not normally gravitate. programs alone is constructive feedback. Staff in this Many young teens find a voice and program helped youth “to be a little insufficient; quality counts a receptive audience in afterschool bit more formal” with each other in ensuring that youth programs when they otherwise feel and gave them the skills to commu- silenced and invisible at home or have access to supportive, nicate about performances so they in school. These features of sup- effective afterschool could “make each other better” and portive afterschool communities programming. get an adult’s help only when abso- can foster youths’ desire to keep lutely necessary. returning to programs. In addition, younger adoles- cents often make choices about which program to attend Exploration within Structure and Routine based on their increasingly important friendships. Providers conveyed that the peer relationships and ex- According to one provider, “If a friend is doing it, they’ll all ploration that take place in early adolescence need to want to do it.” Middle school programs in particular re- happen in certain ways in order to be developmentally ported that cliques can be a powerful mechanism for keep- beneficial. One provider described creating a “tight con- ing youth involved in the program: “If you can offer those tainer” around participants’ behavior. Another noted that cliques what they need in order for them to have a good middle schoolers are “consistently inconsistent.” Middle time, then you have a better chance of them coming, en- school youth are always changing, so staff members rolling, and staying.” On the other hand, cliques can some- working with them must have the ability to adapt as times be a deterrent. A respondent in Washington, DC, needed. However, in part because of this inconsistency, noted that friends often move from program to program middle school youth, according to providers, need struc- together and can create situations that discourage other ture and routine to help them feel safe and to support youth from joining. their developmental needs. Routines—for everything from the sign-up process New Activities to Try to program activities to transportation—provide an ex- Youth in the middle school years need not only to social- ample of creating consistency in programs to support ize but also to explore and test and be curious, using younger teenagers. Providers in our study created many Deschenes, Little, Grossman, & Arbreton parTIcIpaTIOn OvEr TIME 5 redundancies for enrollment, for example, to ensure that motivated to be there, providers cannot expect them to youth remembered to sign up at the end of the day for a attend OST programs every day. Instead, successful high program they found out about at lunchtime. Program school programs look for “sustained but not daily atten- staff distributed flyers, hung posters at schools, reminded dance” (Friedman & Bleiberg, 2007). students if they saw them at school, and even phoned Our study revealed that the following strategies, all youth who had signed up to remind them to come. of which touch on older youths’ goal orientation, are im- In Providence, one provider noted that they get “one portant to the high-participation programs for high chance” to hook middle school students. If things go school youth. wrong on the first day, students are much less likely to return. For instance, if students expect to get on a bus to Emphasis on Content go home at the end of the day, “and then the bus isn’t Providers of the high-participation programs in our sam- there to take [them] back when the time comes, they’re ple reported that they met their participants’ goal-oriented out, that’s it. You lost them.” Without the routine to show interests by offering strong content and exposing them that they are safe and supported, younger adoles- youth to new ideas (see also Chaskin & Baker, 2006; cents will not want to return. Friedman & Bleiberg, 2007). Older teens know what they want to learn in their out-of-school time. As a High School and OST: Content Knowledge, Greater result, high school programs tended to have a narrower, Responsibility, and Future Planning more content-based emphasis than the middle school As youth move into high school, they face a new set of programs, concentrating on, for example, law or tech- challenges that OST programs need to recognize as they nology or music. work to engage these youth. By high school, youth are While some providers noted the difficulty of recruit- much more independent, making their own decisions ing high school students because they have so many about how to spend their time and more options and responsibilities exercising their increasing freedom. than middle schoolers, many of the They are starting to think about programs that meet high high school programs with high what will come next; many have de- school youths’ desire for rates of participation appeared to be veloped particular interests and more targeted in their approach to more specific activities and goals they want to pursue. These programming for older teens. As a training may therefore be students can benefit from support result of this focus, high school pro- more likely to effectively that helps them plan and set goals grams, more than middle school for the future, enhances their ability hold youths’ attention. programs, tended to have staff who to cope with their new roles and re- had deep content knowledge sponsibilities, and gives them a (Grossman, Lind, Hayes, McMaken, greater understanding of their identity, strengths, and & Gersick, 2009; Russell et al., 2008). Programs that weaknesses (Zarrett & Eccles, 2006). meet high school youths’ desire for more specific activi- Although our analysis of the larger program sample ties and training may therefore be more likely to effec- revealed that the efforts to retain youth were similar in tively hold youths’ attention. middle school and high school programs (Deschenes et al., 2010), our interview data from the smaller sample Responsibility and Leadership Opportunities indicated a qualitative difference between the strategies OST programs for high school youth often turn over to for high school versus middle school programs. For ex- the teens significantly more of the responsibility for pro- ample, as one provider acknowledged, “I think the high grams’ operations, through, for example, paid jobs in the school programs are easy to run…. I think once you get program or youth councils. To prepare youth for the re- to the high school level, most of the participants really sponsibilities they would face in the workplace, for in- are motivated to be there, and they’re doing it because stance, Chicago’s After School Matters provided partici- they want to—not because they have to.” In addition, pants with a series of jobs in an apprenticeship ladder high school youth have more opportunities and greater and required professional behavior in those jobs. demands on their time than do middle school youth; for Several other providers mentioned the importance example, they often have more family, school, and work of having high expectations for youth, and some tied responsibilities. Thus, although high school youth are these expectations to their retention rates. One program 6 Afterschool Matters Fall 2010 assigned all its students the middle name “No Excuses.” sixth-grader, an eighth-grader, a high school sophomore, In another program, students were always expected to or a high school senior each has a particular set of needs come to their college prep classes with the proper note- and desires. Programs that are successful at attracting book, having done their work, and with a good attitude. and retaining older youth pay attention to the develop- Consequences for not being prepared were clearly com- mental “fit” between their target participants and their municated and enforced. The director noted, “I think program activities, characteristics, and practices. Some this year we haven’t lost one person because of [our ex- programs choose to target youth at a particular stage, pectations]. . . . Kids say, ‘Wow. They are serious about such as older high school students; others serve a broader it.’” These expectations convey to youth that staff care age range but change the experiences and environment and are committed to their success. of their participants as they age. As our study suggests, Additionally, programs give high school participants the dimensions that programs tailor to fit developmental more responsibility through mentoring so that they have stages include the activity selection and choices, the the opportunity to work with peers or younger partici- structure of the program, levels of responsibility expect- pants. With this additional responsibility and account- ed, and the future payoff of programming. ability, youth may develop stron- Regardless of their approach, ger bonds with the programs and programs that successfully attract programs that are feel more compelled to continue and engage older youth attend to their participation. successful at attracting the changing nature of adolescents and retaining older youth by recognizing and honoring each The Path after Graduation pay attention to the individual’s pathway but also by High school teens, according to one using different program features developmental “fit” observer, are beginning to ask, for youth of different ages and stages between their target “What about jobs? What about in their education. Middle school when I leave school? What’s out participants and their programs respond to youths’ need there for me?” Programs reported program activities, for peer interaction and desire to addressing these concerns about try new things while maintaining characteristics, and youths’ goals in a variety of ways, routines and structure. High school practices. including formal and informal col- programs support youths’ interest lege preparation. While one high in specific content, their desire for school program in our study was geared to college access more responsibility, and their need to plan for their post- and enrollment, another supported college goals as an em- secondary future. Both provide youth with a community bedded part of the programming. In the latter program, of adults to support them through their adolescent jour- college students shepherded high school students through ney. The degree to which programs are in sync with their college research and applications, although this was not a participants affects their ability to attract and retain older formal activity. Through conversations about expectations, youth—and ultimately the degree to which they can help high school youth came to understand the importance of youth benefit from developmentally important opportu- higher education to achieving their goals. Older partici- nities outside of school. pants, as a “give back” to the program, showed high school students how to fill out college applications, get scholar- Acknowledgement ships, and decide on schools to attend. Similarly, appren- This article is adapted from the authors’ earlier study ticeships and other job-related programs help older teens (Deschenes, Arbreton, Little, Herrera, Grossman, & build the skills they will need to succeed in a range of oc- Weiss, 2010) published by the Harvard Family Research cupations after high school; these include job-specific Project. skills, knowledge of appropriate workplace behavior and appearance, and problem-solving skills. These ideas about a future payoff give youth a reason to return to programs. Staying in Sync with Older Youths’ Needs As many of the program providers in this study under- stood, adolescence is a time of rapid transformation. A Deschenes, Little, Grossman, & Arbreton parTIcIpaTIOn OvEr TIME 7 Works Cited National Research Council & Institute of Medicine. (2002). Community programs to promote youth develop- American Youth Policy Forum. (2006). Helping youth ment. Committee on Community-Level Programs for succeed through out-of-school time programs. Washington, Youth. J. Eccles & J. A. Gootman (Eds.). Board on DC: Author. Children, Youth, and Families, Division of Behavioral Balfanz, R. (2009). Putting middle grades students on the and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: graduation path: A policy and practice brief. Westerville, National Academy Press. OH: National Middle School Association. Russell, C., Vile, J. D., Reisner, E. R., Simko, C. E., Chaskin, R., & Baker, S. (2006). Negotiating among Mielke, M. B., & Pechman, E. (2008). Evaluation of the opportunity and constraint: The participation of young New York City Department of Youth and Community people in out-of-school time activities. Chicago, IL: Development Out-of-School Time Programs for Youth Chapin Hall. Initiative: Implementation of programs for high school youth. Deschenes, S., Arbreton, A., Little, P. M., Herrera, C., Washington, DC: Policy Studies Associates. Grossman, J. B., Weiss, H. B., with Lee, D. (2010). Sipe, C. A., Ma, P., & Gambone, M. A. (1998). Support Engaging older youth: Program and city-level strategies to for youth: A profile of three communities. Philadelphia, PA: support sustained participation in out-of-school time. Public/Private Ventures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (2007). Basics of qualitative Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2009). Schools, academic research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded motivation, and stage-environment fit. In R. M. Lerner theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology, Zarrett, N., & Eccles, J. (2006). The passage to adult- Vol. 1: Individual bases of adolescent development (3rd ed., hood: Challenges of late adolescence. New Directions for pp. 404–434). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Youth Development, 111, 13–28. Frederick, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2008). Participation in extracurricular activities in the middle school years: Are Notes there developmental benefits for African American and 1 Most programs’ participation rates were calculated based European American youth? Journal of Youth and on data gathered from citywide OST databases; a few Adolescence, 37(9), 1029–1043. programs were chosen for the study based on reputation. Friedman, L. N., & Bleiberg, M. S. (2007). Meeting the 2 Please see the full report for details on our quantitative high school challenge: Making afterschool work for older analysis. students. New York, NY: The After-School Corporation. 3 Participation rates were calculated based on the Grossman, J., Lind, C., Hayes, C., McMaken, J., & management information system (MIS) daily attendance Gersick, A. (2009). The cost of quality out-of-school time data provided to us by each city’s OST initiative. In programs. Philadelphia, PA: Public/Private Ventures. general, we calculated average program participation Lauver, S., Little, P. M. D., & Weiss, H. (2004). Moving rates as the proportion of program sessions youth beyond the barriers: Attracting and sustaining youth attended, averaged across all youth attending the participation in out-of-school time programs. Issues and program. For example, a youth who comes to half the Opportunities in Out-of-school Time Evaluation #6. sessions offered would have a participation rate of 50 Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project. percent; if a second youth has a 100 percent participation Mahoney, J. L., Vandell, D. L., Simpkins, S., & Zarrett, rate (attending all the sessions offered), the program’s N. (2009). Adolescent out-of-school activities. In R. M. average participation rate across both youth participants Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent would be 75 percent. The average participation rate is psychology, Vol. 2: Contextual influences on adolescent based on four of the six cities in the study. development (3rd ed., pp. 228–269). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 8 Afterschool Matters Fall 2010