Universal Journal of Educational Research 3(5): 307-316, 2015 http://www.hrpub.org DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2015.030501 Teacher-Parent Interactions in Taiwan: A Qualitative Investigation of Teachers’ Perspectives Pi-Ju Wu Graduate Institute of Education, National Changhua University of Education, Taiwan Copyright © 2015 Horizon Research Publishing All rights reserved. Abstract Because the importance of parental everyday interaction between teachers and parents is a key involvement in education has been emphasized recently in element of parent involvement. Taiwan, the nature of teacher-parent interactions has Education reform has been ongoing in Taiwan for more changed. The current study describes teacher-parent than two decades. Decentralization is one of the major interactions from teacher perspectives in grades 1-12 in characteristics of the educational reform movement. Taiwan. Data were collected from 50 teachers using School-based curriculum development has been emphasized open-ended questionnaires. Thematic analysis was used to and teachers now have more power in their teaching analyze the data. Nine themes regarding the experiences of decisions, thus enhancing their professional autonomy. teachers in their interactions with parents were identified, Decentralization has also resulted in increasing the namely, initiative of interaction, cause of interaction, educational involvement of parents. Many education reform parental role, consideration before action, social network, groups have advocated increasing the rights of parents to action strategy, outcome of interaction, reflection on influence the schooling of their children. The Educational interaction, and suggestion for preservice teachers. Four Fundamental Act promulgated in 1999 is a response to that important issues related to teacher-parent interactions are claim. Article 8 of the Act states that parents have the discussed further. responsibility to provide guidance to their children during the period of national compulsory education for their Keywords Parent-Teacher Interaction, Parent- Teacher children and to select the form and content of education and Relationship, Parent Involvement to participate in the educational affairs of schools for the best wellbeing of their children. In 2006, the Regulations of Parental Participation in Educational Affairs of Schools during the Period of National Compulsory Education were 1. Introduction enacted by the Ministry of Education. These regulations require every school to actively communicate with parents Parent involvement has become a widespread movement and enable parents to make important decisions on the across many countries worldwide [6, 16, 24]. From an education of their children. Parents are empowered to economic perspective, schools could obtain potential protect the rights and interests of their children in schooling, cost-benefit resources from parent involvement; from the including the rights of school choice, decision-making, sociological perspective, parent involvement is regarded as objection, association, educational consumption, and one of the mechanisms connecting student academic educational experts [10]. These requirements differ from achievement with the social economic background of their traditional Chinese culture, in which teachers are highly families [17]. After reviewing research on parent respected and parents typically do not question what and involvement in 20 nations, Sanders and Epstein [24] how their children are taught in schools. As a consequence, concluded that most nations began their parent involvement the nature of teacher-parent interactions has greatly changed. policies with mechanical systems such as school choice and For example, Chen [10] interviewed six elementary teachers school decision making; however, these policies are not and found that the teachers developed various political able to replace the more responsive mechanisms, which means to deal with parent empowerment. Although the enable all parents to acquire information on the learning and strategy of open communication and transparency has the development of their children through regular potential to improve the cooperative relationship between communication with teachers. Shumow and Harris [27] also teachers and parents, teacher over compliance with parents identified communication between parents and teachers on might undermine their professional position. Through the child as one of the most important methods of parent participant conservation and interviews in an elementary involvement by second and fifth grade teachers. Therefore, school, Liang [21] concluded that teachers tend to use the 308 Teacher-Parent Interactions in Taiwan: A Qualitative Investigation of Teachers’ Perspectives strategies of confrontation, favorism, and compliance to philosophy, and time, and the practices of families, schools, meet with the demands of parental empowerment. Chang [7] and communities. The internal structure describes indicated that parent-teacher interactions at the kindergarten institutional and interpersonal communication occurring level were affected by the discourse of parent education and within and across the boundaries of schools, families, and marketization of early childhood education. Because communities. The external and internal structures are parents have enacted their rights of school choice and related to each other. The current study focuses on two of educational involvement based on their knowledge of the three spheres of influence, including school and family childhood education, teachers must first understand and contexts and specifically explores the interactions between meet the educational expectations of parents and then use teachers and parents at the interpersonal level. their professional knowledge to educate parents. The first-grade classroom ethnography of Liou and Ting [22] shows that teacher-parent interactions were often caused by 3. Method practical needs such as communicating on student performance at school and attending class or school A survey was conducted to understand how teachers activities. Because most previous studies have been interact with parents and how teachers reflect upon these conducted in kindergarten and elementary school settings, interactions. The survey asked the participants to write up there is still a need to understand how Taiwanese teachers one impressive event that occurred during their interactions interact with parents, particularly beyond the level of with parents through a series of open-ended questions. elementary education. This study describes teacher-parent interactions from 3.1. Participants teacher perspectives in grades 1-12 in Taiwan. The experiences of teachers in their interactions with parents The participants in this study were 50 teachers who provides useful information for designing teacher consented to provide information on working with parents. professional development programs and improving They were recruited through their colleague preservice teacher education. recommendations that they were willing to share their personal experience stories of teacher-parent interactions. Their background information is reported in Table 1. 2. Theoretical Framework Table 1. Participants’ Background The ecological systems theory of Bronfenbrenner [4, 5] Attributes Group Number Percentage describes the complex environments surrounding a child Female 43 86% Gender and the embedded structures which influence each other. Male 7 14% The ecological environments consist of five systems, Under 31 13 26% including the microsystem, which refers to the interactions 31-40 21 42% a child experiences in a face-to-face setting; the mesosystem, Age which refers to the linkages occurring between at least two 41-50 10 26% microsystems; the exosystem, which refers to the linkages Above 50 3 6% occurring between two or more settings, the least of which Under 6 16 32% does not contain the child, but in which the microsystem 6-10 7 14% surrounding the child is affected; the macrosystem, which Years in 11-15 10 20% refers to the overarching pattern of the three systems; and Teaching the chronosystem, which refers to the change over time in 16-20 8 16% the child and the four systems . According to the ecological Above 20 9 18% systems theory, family and school are two microsystems in Education Undergraduate 22 44% child development. Teacher-parent interactions, which Level Graduate 28 56% result in connections between the two microsystems, belong Elementary to one of the mesosystems. This mesosystem not only 15 30% School affects the development of the child by interacting and Teaching Junior High changing its microsystems, but also interacts with its Level School 29 58% exosystems, macrosystems, and chronosystems. High School 6 12% Epstein [11, 13] proposed the theory of overlapping Total 50 100% spheres of influence to explain school, family, and community partnerships. The theoretical model includes Forty-three of the participants were women (86%) and external and internal structures and locates the student at the seven were men (14%). Their ages ranged from 26 to 57 center. The external structure consists of three spheres and the largest age range was 31-40 (42%). The number of representing family, school, and community, which can be years they were engaged in teaching varied from 1 to 30 pulled together or pushed apart by the forces of experience, and 16 out of the 50 participants had taught for five years or Universal Journal of Educational Research 3(5): 307-316, 2015 309 less (32%). Twenty-eight of the participants had master were then coded independently again and the percentage of degrees or took graduate courses (56%) and 22 had inter-coder agreement was calculated. The inter-coder bachelor degrees (44%). Twenty-nine of the participants agreement approached 70%. To achieve intra-coder taught in junior high schools (58%), 15 taught in elementary consistency, the data of each questionnaire were coded schools (30%), and six taught in high schools (12%). repeatedly until no variation was found in the coding result compared to that of previous coding. 3.2. Instruments The Write up of my Teaching Experience Questionnaire 4. Results was constructed as the prime data-collection instrument for this study. The questionnaires were mailed or e-mailed to The analysis of qualitative data from open-ended participants and included eight open-ended questions to questionnaires completed by 50 teachers of grades 1-12 which participants could respond in any way they wished. revealed nine themes regarding their experiences of and The questions are as follows: reflections on their interactions with parents in Taiwan. The  Could you describe one of the most impressive or nine themes are as follows: controversial events related to your interactions with parents? 4.1. Initiative of Interaction  What was the cause of the event?  What actions did you take at that time? What was the When students have problems at school, teachers contact their parents; in contrast, when students perform well at consequence?  What were your considerations when you decided school, their parents are quite willing to contact teachers [12]. Therefore, the one who initiates contact in your action strategies?  Did you discuss the event with someone, such as teacher-parent interactions may be related to student positive or negative performance at school [19]. Over half colleagues or family members? If you did, what were of the teachers in this study initiated interaction with their reactions? Did their reactions affect your parents. For example, Ms. AF stated: actions?  In retrospect, did you deal with the event Because of his (one of the students in her class) bad appropriately? If a similar event occurs again, will attitude toward school learning and his low grades, as you change your approach in dealing with it? well as his bad peer relations, I asked his mother to  What are the implications of the event in your come for a meeting. (16: 16-17) interactions with parents? However, 40% of the teachers expressed that parents  What suggestions do you have on teacher-parent initiated contact with them because of their concerns with interactions for teacher candidates? teaching and learning at school. Ms. BE commented: I received a phone call from one of my students’ parents 3.3. Data Analysis and felt the anger in his trembling voice. He asked me: Data analysis was conducted by thematic analysis. “Why do you require my son to finish so much Themes are recurring patterns, topics, viewpoints, emotions, homework at one time?” He complained that his son concepts, and events [2]. Data from each questionnaire were had not finished the assignments even though the child analyzed using open coding. Coded data were compared worked for more than four hours. (25: 15) and contrasted constantly and then similar codes were combined into categories. Tentative themes were created 4.2. Cause of Interaction during the coding process and were refined later when The behavioral problems of students were the prime reviewing the data. The computer-assisted qualitative data causes of teacher-parent interactions, mentioned by 78% of analysis software, Nvivo, was used to help analyze data. The the teachers. Ms. AB described that one of her students had coded data were labeled as (#1: #2), in which #1 refers to the shown considerable deviant behaviors since the beginning of identified number of participants and #2 represents the the semester, such as using bad language in talking to number of paragraphs in the computer files. When quoting teachers and threatening other students. The situation did not individual experience stories, a code name, ex. Mr./Ms. XX, change after she admonished the student, so she sent a note to was used to represent the participant teacher. inform his parents of their son’s problems. Another example Both intra-coder consistency and inter-coder agreement was Ms. AE’s experience: were established at the beginning of data-analysis. A high school teacher who holds a master’s degree in education When several of the girls who used to be well-behaved, and has experience in conducting qualitative research was turned into rule-breakers in regard to their dress and invited to act as the co-coder. The data of one of the discipline, I wrote about my concerns in the questionnaires were coded independently and the analysis teacher-parent contact booklets. However, I never results were discussed. The data of another questionnaire received any response from their parents. (15: 16) 310 Teacher-Parent Interactions in Taiwan: A Qualitative Investigation of Teachers’ Perspectives Teacher-parent interactions were also caused by student mothers of her students often asked for sick leave for her son academic problems. For example, Ms. KE stated that one of and was not willing to discuss the details of the situation. Ms. the parents called her to ask why her son performed poorly AF learned later that the mother had a mental disorder and on a monthly examination. was unwilling to take medicine during that time. The mother was often under the illusion that bad men would harm her 4.3. Parental Role family outside their home, and so would not allow her son to go to school. Different teachers perceived parents as playing different In contrast to a collaborator, approximately 10% of the roles in teacher-parent interactions, including the objector, teachers perceived parents to sometimes act as collaborator, help-wanter, and pressure-maker. pressure-makers in interacting with them. The parents Nearly half of the experiences of teachers in interacting exercised internal and external power over the teachers and with parents showed that parents played the role of objector. pressured the teachers to agree with them. Internal power As an objector, parents might or might not monitor the refers to the influence of the school administration and the everyday activities of the teachers; however, they oppose Parent Association (PA) over the teachers. Ms. JF recalled teacher approaches when they believe the decisions or asking one of her students to put more effort into his school practices of teachers put the wellbeing of their children at work; however, his grandparents thought she was too risk. Ms. DG indicated that even though she explained why demanding, even though she explained her good intentions the remedial courses were scheduled in the evening, a mother to them. They reported to the school principal. The principal disagreed with her because she did not want her son to get and other administrators advised her to let the child alone. back too late. In the following case, the father of a student Mr. AC provided another example: expressed his disagreement by phone with Ms. BA on her approach to classroom management. I was very angry that his mother replied in such an irresponsible way. However, I could not express my I taught at an elementary school in a high SES dissent. Otherwise, she would pressure me and the community. Most parents value and care about their school through the PA. (13: 20) children’s education. One day, when several students External power refers to the influence of local councilors, made noise in my class, I used ‘guilt-by- association’ mass media, and so on. The following was one of most and grounded the entire class during recess. The next impressive events of teacher-parent interactions that Ms. AE day, one of the parents of my students called me from could recall: abroad to discuss the disciplinary approach I used, after he learned about the event from his son by phone. Under pressure from the city councilor, I was forced to (21: 48) apologize to the parent for my gaffe at the principal’s office. Then I was escorted by the director of Student For 36% of the teachers, parents played the collaborator Affairs back to the classroom and required to express role in teacher-parent interactions. Those parents typically my apology to the entire class. (15: 22-23) agreed with or were obedient to the opinions of the school or teachers on how to solve their child’s problems. Ms. DA and Mr. JG gave two such examples: 4.4. Consideration Before Action I informed their parents first and asked them to come to Teachers either initiated contacting parents or responded school. We needed to find out why the students behaved to parent actions. When deciding how to interact with or in such a way together. Parents should cooperate with respond to parents, more than half of the teachers first schools to deal with their children’s problems. (07: 19, considered the wellbeing of the students. Ms. CC thought 28) that the healthy development of students was most important Each of us, including myself and two teachers at the and did not want the marriage problems of parents to Office of Guidance, was responsible for dealing with negatively affect the child. Ms. AF also stated: the two students’ problems and informing their parents. I reported the case to the police because I hoped to We asked the parents to help us. (41: 18) dispel his fears as soon as possible so that he could Another role the parents played, according to 14% of the grow up in a favorable environment. (16: 37) teachers, was that of help-wanter. Some of the parents sought Fourteen percent of the teachers tried to avoid making help explicitly from their child’s teachers. Mr. AA stated: things worse when they interacted with the parents of His (one of his students) father was violent with his students. Ms. DG recalled that she decided to react in a mother. The mother ran away from home and called me passive way to avoid troubles. Ms. BI also commented: to help protect her child in my class. (11: 14). Because my competence in dealing with student However, the other parents had implicit needs for help. problems was not enough and the student seemed to Although they did not ask the teachers for help, the teachers frequently get into trouble, I reported to the school could sense their needs. Ms. AF described how one of the administrators to prevent things from getting worse. Universal Journal of Educational Research 3(5): 307-316, 2015 311 (29: 34) morning. I worried about her until her parents found her and I felt a sense of relief. I discussed this incident When interacting with parents, approximately 10% of the with guidance teachers at school and they approved of teachers considered the reactions and feelings of parents. Ms. my decision and action. (51:32) BH said that she could empathize with the anxiety and pain of a mother, so she tolerated the mother’s harsh criticism. Ms. When others offered suggestions instead of commentaries JD’s experience was as follows: on how to interact with students’ parents, the teachers obtained information on solving problems they encountered. Out of consideration for the mother’s dignity and Ms. BC said that the director of the Office of Guidance feelings, I did not talk with her directly. (04: 23) analyzed the incident and indicated that the parent’s Ten percent of the teachers considered the rights and accusation was entirely groundless and suggested that she interests of the entire class when planning how to handle could find out the true facts from her students. Ms. AH also parents regarding student problems. Ms. JA indicated that stated: because of the right of other students to learn, she suggested Because the student’s family background was so sending one of the two students to the midway class even complicated, the school teachers could not solve the though his parents were against her idea. Mr. CE also stated: problems caused by his family. Therefore, my The student showed considerable deviant behaviors, colleagues suggested that I just focus on his school life such as screaming in class, hitting classmates, etc. To and stay in touch with his mother. (18: 32) keep the class safe and to protect the right of the other However, 10% of the teachers perceived that others held students to learn, I asked the staff at the Office of different opinions on how to approach or react to the Student Affairs to help separate the student from other incidents involving interactions with parents of students. students and called his father immediately. (35: 36) Their differing opinions might affect teacher choices regarding action strategies and cause negative feelings. The 4.5. Social Network colleagues of Ms. EA supported her dealings with one of her students cheating on an examination, but her family A social network consists of a definite set or sets of actors members disagreed with and blamed her for her decision to and the relation or relations defined on them (Wasserman & inform the student’s parents, resulting in the student’s Faust, 1994, p. 20). Those individuals whom one person is running away from home. If the student had suffered linked with are referred to as nodes in one’s social networks misfortune, Ms. EA would have felt sorry for the rest of her and the social relationships that result from the connections life. The school administrators also gave the following among the nodes are one’s social networks. Ninety percent advice to Ms. AE: of the teachers said that their social networks are involved in their interactions with parents. The teachers’ colleagues and Mind your own business. Parents today spoil their families comprised the major nodes in their social networks. children. Children are not restrained. Parents usually Ms. DF and Ms. JD discussed their communications with the refuse to acknowledge their children’s faults. (15: 33) parents of their students with their husbands. Ms. CC Although Ms. AE did not follow their advice, she felt that commented: her enthusiasm diminish for communicating with parents I discussed this incident with my colleagues and and school administrators. However, 10% of teacher learned about the conduct of the student’s father in interactions with parents did not involve their social general. I thought that the father loved his child and networks. Ms. DC said that she did not talk of the incident would not hurt him. (33: 29) with her colleagues or families because she was confident with her own principles of working with parents. The main functions of the teachers’ social networks included providing support, making suggestions, and expressing different opinions. When they received opinions 4.6. Action Strategy on how to act or react to their students’ parents, which were The action strategies of teachers regarding their similar to theirs, 44% of the teachers felt that their actions interactions with parents were divided into two categories: received the support of others. Mr. CB said that his family handling things alone and letting someone step in. Within the members and colleagues agreed with his principles of how to first category, 56% of the teachers tried to solve student handle his students’ misconduct, which included informing problems by themselves, which frequently led to their the students’ parents and requiring the parents’ cooperation. interactions with parents. For example, Ms. AG interviewed The following description was given by Ms. EA: her student first and found out that he was distracted because I caught a girl cheating on the examination and she of quarrels between his parents. She visited his mother and cried, begging me not to let her parents know about it. informed the mother about her son’s fears and worries. The However, I informed her parents of her misconduct and mother promised Ms. AG to do her best not to disturb her tried to let her parents know how panicked she was. son’s learning because of her marital problems before he However, the girl ran away from home early the next entered college. When the parents were not cooperative, the 312 Teacher-Parent Interactions in Taiwan: A Qualitative Investigation of Teachers’ Perspectives teachers focused on solving student problems on their own. students, parents, and teachers. Ten of the teachers reported Ms. JH described her action strategy: that the interaction sometimes solved student behavioral or academic problems. Mr. AA stated: Since the semester began, the student had shown deviant or strange behaviors in class, such as falsifying I spoke frequently with the student to let him know that scores on his test papers, saying sexually explicit things his mother cared about him and worried about his to girls, etc. I called his mother and she replied that her misconduct. Finally, he was able to appreciate the son had no such deviant behavior in elementary school message I tried to communicate. He understood his and behaved as usual at home. In addition to parents’ concern and changed his attitude toward them. continuing to communicate with the parents, I His behavior improved. (11: 17) rearranged the student’s seat and explained his In contrast, seven of the teachers noted that student condition to the classmates sitting around him to problems sometimes worsened because of teacher-parent reduce their fears. I also explained his condition to interactions. Ms. AE indicated the inappropriate dress and other teachers who taught my class. (08: 26-27) behavior of two girls in front of the entire class. However, Other, 30% of the teachers requested someone to step in to the girls distorted what she said and told their parents about work out problems, which were either caused by students, or her criticism. The parents did not believe Ms. AE’s resulted from related teacher-parent interactions. For explanation and demanded that she apologize to the entire example, Ms. BI said that she informed the student’s class. She felt pressured by one of the city councilors to grandparents about his school misconduct and asked the staff apologize to the parents and the class: at the Office of Guidance and the Office of Student Affairs After this incident, the entire class showed no respect for their help. According to the description of 14% of the for me, and other teachers who taught my class were teachers, someone stepping in did occur without their request. afraid of carrying out any disciplinary policy toward Ms. CA frequently commented, “Are you dumb?” when those students. As a result, the entire class was out of students angered her by not replying to her repeated control. (15: 22) questions. One day, when the scenario occurred again, she received a phone call from the aunt of one of her students. Nine of the teachers responded that the solutions to The aunt said that her wording was inappropriate and student problems resulting from teacher-parent interactions unacceptable. Ms. CA tried to explain and the were still in progress and the consequences were unknown. communication between them went nowhere. The mother of Twelve percent of the teachers expressed that parents were the student then came to visit Ms. CA the next day and dissatisfied with their actions, whereas 24% noted that expressed her disappointment at the inappropriate manner of parents appreciated what they did. Ms. DD stated: the teacher. Ms. CA nearly lost her patience and just made a At that time, the manner in which both of us spoke was brief statement on how she used the phrase because students not very friendly. The student’s mother did not agree said nothing in reply to her questions. However, with the way I dealt with her daughter’s problem; The mother came to talk to the director of the Office of however, I felt that her daughter deserved it, because Academic Affairs and the director asked me to call and the girl broke school regulations…...We parted on bad apologize to her……Then the principal came to tell me terms in the end. (44: 19) that I must apologize. (31: 11-12) In contrast, when Ms. EA did her best to explain, with When someone steps in, especially without the request of help from the science teacher, why she gave the girl a the teacher, teachers are forced to accommodate to the view demerit, the girl’s mother eventually accepted her of the mediators, which typically agrees with the parents. explanation. In four cases, the parents even expressed their The case of Ms. CA is an example of her being forced to gratitude or apologized to the teachers: apologize to the student’s mother. In contrast, mediators The student attempted suicide but fortunately, failed to typically step in to work with teachers to solve problems succeed. She admitted that she lied to her father about because of the teacher request for help. Ms. AF said that the cause of her suicide attempt, which was not related when one of her students called her for help because his to the disciplinary policy I adopted in my class. The mother, who had a mental disorder, cut his clothes and books father was sorry about the blame he put on me and with scissors one night, she reported the case to the police. apologized to me in front of the school administrators. Ms. AF, accompanied by a policeman, visited the student’s (23: 23) apartment. With the help of the policeman, she was able to “rescue” the student from a dangerous situation and Two of the teachers expressed emotional fluctuation in temporarily separate him from his mother. interacting with parents. Ms. CA said that she was unwilling to apologize to the student’s mother, but the principal strongly demanded that she do so. Although she briefly 4.7. Outcome of Interaction apologized to the mother in the principal’s office, she felt sad The interactions between teachers and parents influenced and humiliated. By contrast, Ms. BA felt grateful that the Universal Journal of Educational Research 3(5): 307-316, 2015 313 student’s father was willing to pay for an expensive phone and teachers cannot fix those family problems. Therefore, bill to communicate his opinions on classroom management she would focus on the wellbeing of students at school and with her from abroad. continue to do things the same. Two teachers stated that they would not change their actions because of their professional 4.8. Reflection on Interaction ethics. Ms. CC expressed that she would not change her manner of dealing with parents to protect student When reflecting on their experiences of teacher-parent confidentiality. Ms. DE also stated: interactions, 70% of the teachers expressed that they would adopt different action strategies or make slight adjustments if I will still do my best to strive for student interests. I will similar situations occurred again. Among those teachers, 16 try to help their parents understand the purpose for my of them would adopt different action strategies for actions. After all, this is what a teacher ought to do and interacting with the parents of students because they wanted I cannot stop doing it because of past failures. (45: 29) to improve interaction quality, while eight teachers would change their previous actions toward improving teaching 4.9. Suggestion for preservice teachers quality or the teacher-student relationship. Ms. BE, who belongs to the first category, noted: The first suggestion made by more than 70% of the teachers for preservice teachers is to improve the quality and When I recall the talk between me and the boy’s mother, quantity of communication between teachers and parents. I think that if I could have been more patient and calm Teachers can use various channels for teacher-parent to listen to her and wait until her emotion eased, both of communication, including contact booklet, home visit, us might have been able to discuss things rationally. phone call, class newsletter, parent-teacher conference, and (25: 33) before- and after-school time. To improve the quality of Ms. BA, who belongs to the second category, said that the teacher-parent communication, teachers need to inform entire class was grounded during recess because of the parents on their children’s problems and good performance, wrong doing of some students. After the father of one student communicate with parents as soon as possible, respect and discussed this incident with her by phone from abroad, Ms. empathize with parents and their opinions, provide parents BA said that she would never use this kind of disciplinary opportunities for understanding their teaching approaches, strategy in her classroom management because of the and understand students’ families. Ms. CH added: importance of recess to first graders. Teacher should be empathetic. If teachers expect Nine teachers considered turning to school administrators parents to respect and support them, they need to ask or professionals for help. Thus, they considered alternative themselves: How do I expect my own child to be treated action strategies. Mr. CB and Ms. EA said that they would by his/her teachers? (38:36) request help from school councilors and police to help solve problems. Ms. DG stated: Second, the teachers suggested that preservice teachers increase their professional knowledge and their skills in I will still insist on my standards of student manners interpersonal relationships. A related suggestion is that and clothes; however, I will requests assistance from teachers should manage their emotions adequately when the school administration to remove possible parent interacting with students and their parents. Ms. AB stated: misunderstandings. (47: 32) Before dealing with your students’ problems, you must Finally, five teachers thought that they would change handle your own emotions well. (12: 46) their action from active to passive. Ms. DF was one of those examples: Third, the teachers reminded preservice teachers to consult with their senior colleagues on teacher-parent If I come across similar cases, I will not be meddlesome interactions. Senior teachers have rich experience in anymore. (46: 18) interacting with students’ parents, so they can be sources of By contrast, 12 teachers saw that their actions already practical knowledge, which younger teachers can learn from. resulted in positive outcomes, so they did not think they Besides, teachers have better to seek the help of school needed to change their interactions with parents. Mr. AA administration whenever needed. Ms. AB stated: noted: Teachers need to request support from the school Although the process of problem-solving was lengthy administration or even other institutions when they and did not obtain instant effects, the final outcomes encounter complex problems related to students or were positive. Therefore, if I run into the same incidents their parents. They should not fight a lone battle. (12: again, I will probably act on my own past experience. 48) (11: 29) Fourth, the teachers suggested that preservice teachers Two teachers did not consider alternative action based on establish positive teacher-student relationships. Because their low self-efficacy for problem-solving. Ms. AH thought teacher-parent interactions are often caused and mediated by that students with problems grow in families with problems students and their problems, maintaining good 314 Teacher-Parent Interactions in Taiwan: A Qualitative Investigation of Teachers’ Perspectives teacher-student relationships may benefit teachers in their mesosystems and icrosystems, which include the interactions with parents. To establish positive relationships teacher-parent relationship, the teacher-student relationship, with students, teachers need to understand their students first. and teacher-administrator relationship [4, 5]. The different Teachers can improve teacher-student relationships with roles parents played in their interactions with teachers may good classroom management. Seventh, the teachers result from the different goals, beliefs, attitudes, and reminded preservice teachers to protect themselves from behaviors which teachers and parents hold in different being hurt in teacher-parent interactions. Ms. DF expressed: contexts [13]. This also shows one aspect of the micropolitics of teaching related to power and how teachers Teachers make demands on students’ learning and use it to influence others and to protect themselves [3]. The conduct based on their sense of responsibility for micropolitcal analysis of Chen [10] indicates that education. However, teachers should think about elementary school teachers develop various political self-protection at all times because they hold a weak strategies when interacting with parents, including types of position in society. (46: 30) influence, protection, and cooperation. Based on the Finally, the teachers who participated in this study research framework on the micropolitics of teaching suggested adopting appropriate attitudes toward parents. proposed by Blasé [3], the roles, events, structures, and Teachers must not overly compromise themselves with processes involved in teacher-parent interactions deserve parents. Ms. DF thought that because of their lack of future exploration. teaching experience, beginning teachers may not be accepted Second, whether teachers or parents initiated completely by parents; however, they should insist on their teacher-parent interactions, the causes of the interactions professional principles and not simply meet the demands of always involved student behavioral or academic problems. the parents without consideration. Ms. AI stated: Chen [10] also found curriculum/schoolwork and student discipline to be two critical events in teacher-parent Stand your ground. Do not play up to the parents; interactions. This shows the traditional nature of otherwise, you will be manipulated by them. (19: 49) teacher-parent interactions. Ramirez [23] indicated that Teachers should not have high expectations of parents. when communication between parents and teachers mainly Ms. AG considered: revolves around student discipline or grades, it may result in Every family has some troubles. Teachers should focus mutual mistrust between them. However, this study found on educating students and not be responsible for that when making suggestions for preservice teachers, the changing or educating their parents. (17: 46) teachers emphasized the importance of informing parents on the good performance of their children in addition to their problems. According to the theory of action [1], 5. Discussion teacher interactions with parents were guided by their “theories-in-use,” embedded in their personal experience This study explores teacher-parent interactions from stories of teacher-parent interactions. However, their teacher perspectives in grades 1-12 in Taiwan. The results suggestions for preservice teachers might reveal their of this study indicate several noticeable issues deserving espoused theories related to how teachers are supposed to further discussion. First, when parents played the role of act in working with parents and might be learned from their collaborator who tended to agree with teacher opinions in preservice and in-service training. The discrepancy between teacher-parent interactions, the teachers perceived that both teachers’ theories-in-use and the espoused theories of of them intended to solve student problems, which initiated teacher-parent interactions indicates that they may their interactions together. Henderson, Marburger, and recognize the importance of and hold the knowledge of Ooms [15] argued that a major part of parents playing parent involvement in education, emphasized in recent collaborator role is to help teachers resolve their children’s educational reform policies in Taiwan, but have not yet problems. However, this type of teacher-parent interaction practiced the knowledge. However, through narrating their seems close to the expert model in which teachers maintain own experience of teacher-parent interactions, the teachers control over decisions on how to solve student problems, were triggered to critically reflect on their theories-in-use while parents receive information and direction from and were aware that the nature of their communication with teachers [18]. However, when parents acted as the objector parents needs to change. Therefore, the programs designed or pressure-maker in teacher-parent interactions, the teachers for teacher professional development need to not only pay often conceded that they were wrong or behaved attention to knowing how to improve teacher-parent inappropriately, particularly in cases where others stepped in interactions, but also emphasize teachers as reflective to resolve the problems, which caused the interactions. practitioners who are capable of performing Those “others” typically involve school administrators, knowing-in-action, reflection-in-action, and presidents of the Parent Associations, and local reflection-on-reflection-in-action [26]. Because most assemblymen or assemblywomen who act as the mediator preservice teachers might have experienced traditional between teachers and parents. Their interventions, viewed teacher- parent communication while they were students in as change in exosystems, often caused change in grades K-12, it is necessary for them to understand when Universal Journal of Educational Research 3(5): 307-316, 2015 315 and how to interact with the parents of students to establish teacher-parent interactions differ in terms of family and maintain quality teacher-parent relationships. background and history. Future research is needed to Third, teacher experience of and reflection on their consider what roles family background plays in interactions with parents seems related to their professional teacher-parent interactions, which was not emphasized in identity. When the teachers decided how to interact with this study. Differences also exist among teachers according parents, the primary consideration was student wellbeing. to the grade levels of their students, teaching experience, When deciding whether or not they would change their gender, and so on. This study did not explore how teachers action strategies if similar events occur, the teachers of different backgrounds describe their personal experience, considered student wellbeing first. This shows the caring and future research is needed to account for these factors dimension of teaching. However, the teacher emotions and when investigating teacher-parent interactions. beliefs were affected by their perceptions of parents as objectors and pressure-makers. They felt that they needed self-protection and could not overly compromise 7. Conclusions themselves with parents. Hargreaves and Lasky [14] and Lasky [20] indicated a moral distance, which describes the Most previous studies have investigated teacher-parent lack of shared goals in schooling between teachers and interactions in grades K-6 in Taiwan and research is needed parents and a political distance, which describes distorted to explore how teachers interact with parents, particularly interpersonal communication caused by a difference of beyond the level of elementary education. This study found power and status between teachers and parents. Chen and that student behavioral problems and academic problems Wang [9] and Chen [8] also found that parent-teacher were the main causes of teacher-parent interactions. When interactions are influenced by the sociocultural distance, interacting with parents, the teachers perceived that parents moral distance, professional distance, physical distance and played roles of objector, collaborator, help-wanter, and political distance. Epstein [13] suggested that teachers and pressure-maker. The action strategies of teachers regarding parents are two of the three spheres of influence in the their interactions with parents included handling things alone development and schooling of a child. When these two and letting someone step in. Most of the teachers expressed spheres are pulled apart because of the distance between that they would adopt different action strategies or make them, their influence on the child decreases. However, some adjustment if a similar situation reoccurred. More teachers and parents have a unique influence on a child’s research is needed to investigate how teachers and parents development and these two spheres of influence do not with different backgrounds influence the interactions totally overlap [13]. How to maximize the influence of between them. teachers and parents on student development is still an important issue for study. 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