Underrepresented College Students’ Experiences With School Counselors Donna J. Dockery Virginia Commonwealth University Susan McKelvey Virginia Commonwealth University 2 Abstract School counselors should focus on helping underrepresented students access higher education in efforts to close achievement gaps. Limited information is available regarding how first-generation and ethnic minority students view school counseling efforts to promoting post-secondary opportunities. Participants in this study indicated school counselors could provide more support for college planning and transitions. Students of color held lower expectations that school counselors could help with college planning. Although more first-generation students received career information compared to second generation students, there were no significant differences in perceived support for college admissions. Because parents had the greatest influence on college decision-making, counselors should provide college programming for all students, with an emphasis on parents and on underrepresented students. 3 Underrepresented College Students’ Experiences With School Counselors Many current and future employment opportunities rely on skills in technology, verbal and written communication, and a knowledge base that requires post-secondary education and training. One of the critical roles of professional school counselors is to provide the academic, psychosocial, and career preparation students need to access higher education in support of these opportunities. In particular, school counselors should target underrepresented college students in order to encourage their career aspirations. In addition to assisting individual students, school counselors should address and remove barriers to higher education for first-generation college students, students of color, and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Reid & Moore, 2008). Professional organizations provide clear expectations that school counselors will support students in their efforts to access higher educational opportunities. The ethical standards of the American School Counseling Association (2010) mandate that school counselors promote equity and access to all school programs, close achievement and opportunity gaps, and prepare students for a variety of postsecondary options. The College Board (2010) agrees, and expects that school counselors will identify gaps in student achievement and access to higher education, design and implement appropriate interventions to close gaps, and measure progress towards equitable student outcomes. In addition, The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (2009) expects school counselors to conduct needs assessments and use data to create and evaluate services designed to support students’ transitions to postsecondary opportunities. Despite guidelines from ASCA that 4 school counseling programs provide services to all students (ASCA, 2010), limited research has been published regarding the effectiveness of school counseling efforts to support postsecondary planning. The ASCA National Model (2012) expects school counselors to advocate for systemic changes by identifying and removing barriers to achieving college and career readiness for all students, with a focus on those who have historically been underrepresented in higher education. Despite these recommendations, there is a dearth of research regarding school counselors’ college advocacy with first-generation students and students of color. Underrepresented College Students’ Experiences With School Counselors Underrepresented college students are viewed as those students who have historically been denied access to higher education. These students may not receive equitable services compared to more traditional college students. Generally underrepresented students include such populations as first-generation students, those from low-income backgrounds, and ethnic and racial minority students who have been underserved in post-secondary programs. First-generation students are a population that is underrepresented on many college campuses. First-generation status has been defined in several ways, ranging from students whose parents never entered college to those for whom neither parent earned a bachelor’s degree. Herrold and O’Donnell (2008) report that nationally almost 60 percent of K-12 school-aged students are first-generation, defined by neither parent attaining a college degree. While 93% of second-generation students enroll in college, only 59% of first-generation students moved on to higher education (Choy, 2001). Both college enrollment and graduation are highly correlated to parent’s educational 5 attainment, therefore institutions of higher education have focused attention on how to support and encourage first-generation students. Because many first-generation students either don’t enroll in post-secondary programs or drop out before earning their degrees (Choy, 2001), it is also imperative that school counselors better assist these students in preparing for and transitioning successfully to higher education. Although school counselors are encouraged to support underrepresented students (Matthay, 1989) there is limited research published regarding expectations these students have about school counselors’ assistance with the college process. The purpose of this study is to begin to bridge this gap. The limited research regarding underrepresented college students’ experiences with school counselors will be reviewed. Recommendations and strategies will be proposed to help professional school counselors more effectively assist underrepresented college students and their parents better understand and access post-secondary opportunities. Characteristics Underrepresented college students may differ in a number of ways from other college attendees. For example, first-generation students are more likely to be female, students of color, or married (Choy, 2001; Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella, & Nora, 1996). First-generation students are also more likely to be living at home or off- campus, working more hours, and receiving financial aid (Nuñez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). These students are less likely to persist in higher education, graduate at lower rates, and are more likely to attend part-time and enroll in community colleges or private, for-profit institutions compared to other college students (Nuñez & Cuccaro- Alamin, 1998). 6 Students who have traditionally been denied access to higher education also have significant barriers that interfere with their efforts to graduate from college including lacking appropriate academic preparation, misunderstanding of financial aid and college admissions requirements, and fewer experiences with higher education. These students have less knowledge about college, demonstrate less commitment for attending and earning degrees, and may have limited support for college attendance from parents and family (York-Anderson & Bowmen, 1991). Successful transition to higher education is another challenge for underrepresented students who frequently must balance family demands, financial concerns, and cultural considerations in addition to the social and academic adjustments faced by all college students (Terenzini, et al., 1996). Chen, Wu, and Tasoff (2010) report that despite these challenges the majority high school students expect to attend college and understand the importance of post- secondary training. Too many students, however, lack an understanding of the college admission process and are not prepared to meet the academic demands of college coursework. Another concern is whether school counselors have been adequately trained to support underrepresented students in accessing higher education. Although Gibbons and Shoffner (2004) suggest strategies for school counselors seeking to assist underrepresented students overcome barriers to higher education and Fallon (1997) recommends providing support groups for underrepresented middle and high school students, few other recommendations are found in the research literature. 7 Underrepresented Students’ Perspectives on School Counseling Little information has been published regarding how underrepresented students perceive school counselors and their efforts to assist with accessing post-secondary opportunities. Most of this research is qualitative in nature and conducted with small numbers of students. Studies with larger sample sizes gathered only limited information regarding the college planning initiatives of school counselors and often didn’t report whether respondents were underrepresented or not. Coogan and DeLucia-Waack (2007) surveyed more than 400 college students regarding their perceptions of the role of school counselors and included two items regarding college selection and scholarships. Although no information was provided regarding whether students were underrepresented, the respondents perceived college selection and college decision-making as the two highest priorities for school counselors, and also viewed assistance with scholarships as a priority. A qualitative study of ten African American students enrolled in exceptional education services found that even though students expected school counselors to assist with course selection and program planning, none of the students shared expectations that the counselor would assist them with planning for the future and careers (Moore, Henfield, & Owens, 2008). Students who did seek out counseling services only sought help for academic scheduling and meeting graduation requirements, and not for how to plan for the future or access college, although a majority of the students aspired to higher education. First- or second- generation status was not indicated, although most of the students were from families of limited economic means and resided with a single parent who had earned at least a high school diploma. 8 Although Lapan, Gysbers, and Sun (1997) found that students attending schools with more fully implemented counseling programs felt that they had higher academic achievement and more career and college information available to them, although these results were measured only on a single survey item each. Females, students of color, and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, however, responded less positively regarding their school climate and academic achievement. No analysis was provided regarding students who were first- or second-generation. Eckenrod-Green and Culbreth (2008) interviewed eight Hispanic students regarding their perceptions of school counselors. School counselors had not initiated contact with any of the participants in this study, and only three of the participants had met with their school counselor in the past year. Students indicated that appropriate roles for school counselors included academic planning and college admissions, although none of the students had met with counselors to explore college. Participants suggested that school counselors should assist parents in better understanding the school system. Davila (2003) also completed qualitative research with Latino students who shared their mostly negative experiences with school counselors. Students reported a lack of career exploration and planning, limited help with college planning, and little academic planning or support from school counselors. Vela-Gude et al. (2009) also interviewed eight college attending Latino students regarding their perceptions of school counselors. Most students reported a lack of or inappropriate advising about academics, college planning, and scholarships. In addition, participants reported that school counselors were unavailable, had limited time to assist with psychosocial issues, and provided fewer services to students who were from lower 9 income backgrounds. Several students perceived that their school counselors had low expectations of them while others described their counselors as setting limits and discouraging their aspirations. Only a single Latino student described her counselor as positive, encouraging, and supportive. Because limited research has been completed regarding underrepresented students’ perceptions of school counselors and the majority of these studies were qualitative in nature with small sample sizes, this research is an initial attempt to begin to fill this gap. Research questions follow: 1. Do underrepresented college students in a pre-service teaching class at an urban Southeast university (first-generation and students of color) have different expectations of their school counselors' help with college admissions compared to other college students (second generation and white students), as evidenced on an on-line survey of their perceptions? 2. Do underrepresented college students in a pre-service teaching class at an urban Southeast university (first-generation and students of color) have different experiences with their school counselors' support for college admissions compared to other college students (second generation and white students), as evidenced on an on- line survey of their perceptions? 3. Are there differences in expectations and actual experiences that college students in a pre-service teaching class at an urban Southeast university have related to school counselors' support in the college admissions process, as evidenced on an on-line survey of their perceptions? 10 Method Design This research was completed with university students enrolled during spring 2012 in an introductory human development and learning course required for pre- service teachers at a large metropolitan university in the Southeastern United States. After securing institutional review board approval, the pre-service teachers received an e-mail invitation to participate in an on-line survey regarding their perceptions of the role of school counselors. After giving their assent, the pre-service teachers completed the survey; participants had the option to complete the survey as one way to fulfill the research component of the class. Participants Participants included a convenience sample of 126 of the 228 pre-service teachers enrolled in five sections of an introductory human development and learning class, for a response rate of 55%. The participants were asked to respond to several demographic questions. For the purposes of this paper, we were interested in underrepresented groups such as first-generation college students and students of color. More participants were second-generation (n = 70; 56%) than first-generation (n = 56; 44%). The racial/ethnic breakdown was majority Caucasian (n = 75; 60%), followed by African American (n = 33; 26%), Asian American (n = 11; 9%), Latino (n = 4; 3%), Biracial or multiracial (n = 3; 2%), Native American/American Indian/Alaskan Indian (n = 2; 2%), and Other (n = 1; 1%). The racial/ethnic breakdown numbers add up to more than 126 because some people chose more than one background. More participants were female (n = 110, 87.3%) than male (n = 16, 12.7%). Students were primarily