aaustralian s osc i e t y f o r mmu s i c The art of pianism meets science, educat ioen incorporated sustainable performance: Use of arm weight Barbara James Abstract Playing the piano can result in intense muscular activity with the potential to cause injury to the hand and fingers. It was reasoned some time ago that technique had to be made sustainable. This resulted in the exploration of ways to make muscular use more economic in playing because even small energy savings are worthwhile in making technique physiologically efficient. The substantial changes in the musical environment including keyboards led musical theorists of more than a century ago to respond with technical concepts applying mechanical and physiological principles to technique based on efficient muscle use. One solution was to use arm weight with the assistance of gravity, an ever-present force affecting our body movements, particularly downward vertical movements. Recent neuroscience research examined the effect on muscle activity by a process of lifting the hand and dropping it onto the keys and comparing with a downstroke generated at key level. Results showed that gravity could be used successfully, with enhanced efficiency of muscular use and a reduction in the finger-key force generated. Playing expressively with increased tempo or sound level intensified finger force, but increasing both simultaneously had a very more detrimental effect on force levels, particularly through increasing the sound level. It was also deleterious to movement organisation in these circumstances and could result in reduced performance time without fatigue. The outcomes of the studies are explained in terms of mechanical and functional principles. The implications of the findings include the need to apply the findings to teaching strategies for application to performance itself. Piano practice also needs careful consideration and the need for education in injury prevention so individuals know how to protect themselves. Pedagogy aimed at teaching children is another urgent area of attention. Key words: arm weight, physiological efficiency, non-muscular force, musicians, pianists, music teachers. Australian Journal of Music Education 2012:2,92-101 Introduction control to allow concentration on interpretation to occur and as technique gains in command A primary goal of piano performance is for a phrasing and expression takes shape. Technique pianist, when conveying musical images, to itself encompasses the basic physical tools to produce the appropriate tempo, dynamic, tone create the necessary movement patterns, and the and timbre. It embraces a very complex skill, end-product relies on our capacity for physical taking years of training for the achievement of movement through motor skills organizing proficiency. Performance is underpinned by the movement by coordinating muscle and joint playing technique1, the aspect of music we must action. The necessary motor skills are controlled by the brain through the sensori-motor system 1. The physical act of playing enabled by the complex system and executed by the body, the musculo- coordinating the intellectual and bodily demands implicit in a skeletal system (MS) in particular. The resulting musical work. 92 2012, No. 2 Pianism meets science, sustainable performance complexities of the system which operates small concert halls to present day conditions with between the musical idea and the motor skills heavier action and resistance in pianos, and the come within the ambit of movement science. need for louder playing to fill the large spaces in The idea involves art but its execution has concert halls. In addition, an avid musical public implications for the science of movement. expects pianists to achieve physical motions of Playing a composition expressively means accuracy, speed and subtlety, in other words, varying the delivery of key force to achieve the almost the impossible (Kuerti, 2012). The number necessary dynamics and tempo. So under some of piano competitions for young classical pianists circumstances, technique can result in intense has increased, and with it generated additional and repetitive movement, the effects of which pressures. However, the problem with teaching are exacerbated by the many hours of practice practice responding is that a traditional approach needed to meet a high playing standard leaving to teaching still exists (Lister-Sink, 2004; MacKie, the body vulnerable to injury through overuse. 2007). This makes it difficult for a change to occur At the same time, it is also necessary for playing now even though it is better understood how the to appear aesthetically elegant and effortless, structure and function of the body, and natural so technique must be sustainable during a mechanical laws can enhance technique style. recital, and over the long-term working life as a Pedagogues in the early part of last century, professional pianist. However, the high-exposure realizing the new challenges to keyboard use to muscular activity to produce virtuosic began to re-think earlier ideas on playing movement patterns can cause micro-trauma technique by applying scientific thought. They to muscle and tendon tissues in the hand and hypothesised that arm weight could assist the forearm (Dennerlein, 2008). Human tissues are fingers by using external force to drop the arm, not designed for the repetitive, forceful actions and the term use of arm weight was coined needed and cumulative damage is a major cause (e.g., Matthay, 1903). This led to the concept of playing-related musculoskeletal disorders of muscular efficiency to reduce muscle fatigue [PRMD] (Zaza & Farewell, 1997). and tissue wear (Ortmann, 1929) by creating The prevalence of injuries in pianists is functional, economic movement patterns to disturbing with reports of more than 60% of meet the challenge of repeatedly performing the active piano players at some time experiencing same movements. However, only recently have muscular discomfort through to more serious scientists such as performance neuroscientist had symptoms such as tendonitis and focal dystonia the tools to empirically analyse and quantify the (Bragge, Bialocerkowski & McMeeken, 2006; benefits of using external force. Bruno, Lorusso & Labbate, 2008). Today’s typical The objective of this paper is to review selected professional training aggravates the problem studies investigating the use of external forces by the perceived need to acquire a repertoire relying on a downward forearm movement by dominated by fast/loud playing thus setting the using the weight of this segment to help generate scene for injury to occur. The no-pain, no-gain key impact. It could assist the development attitude of young pianists increases the problem, of sustainable technique by focusing on cost- because they do not wish to reduce practice time effective energy output while playing by keeping through admitting to a PRMD (Bruno et al., 2008). muscle activity to comfortable levels to allow A problem appears to be that teaching practice focus on interpretation. First discussed are the may not have changed sufficiently to meet the relevant movement mechanics which are an needs of the current music environment. We have outcome of the environment in which we live, moved on from earlier lighter keyboards played in followed by the empirical research investigating Australian Journal of Music Education 93 James the implications to force generated by the fingers traditional approach of playing with the hand during keyboard use when varying the expressive at key level may not generate enough impact, components of the playing technique. The lifting the hand first could prove to be beneficial. implications of the research findings are dealt Therefore, research was needed to test this idea with in the final sections. by increasing the understanding of how to work with gravity to lessen muscular activity and the Movement Mechanics resulting energy expended. Allied to gravity is the natural law stating that for every action there Gravity is an equal but opposite reaction (Newton’s third Gravity is a pervasive phenomenon in which law of motion), and this becomes relevant when we live, and the body and each of its segments the fingers deliver a force to the keys, because a is acted on by this force, which causes all rebound motion occurs initiating the lift for the unsupported bodies to fall and despite their next downswing. weight, at the same acceleration (rate of change of speed). Gravitational acceleration, being Structure and Function of the Arm- ever present in every-day life actions plays an Complex Muscles important role in several body functions. For Both the upper and lower limbs have evolved instance, organs of the vestibular system in the with larger muscles high on the limbs, and ear provide the central nervous system (CNS)2 smaller ones at the periphery – the hands with valuable information concerning spatial and feet, basically to lighten the load having orientation, visual perception, and balance to be moved in everyday actions. The other control (Pozzo et al., 1998). As a force affecting characteristic of the limbs is that they are made our bodily movements, gravity has been studied up of different segments which interact to make in the context of its compensation in vertical arm movement, resulting in the important function of movements (Papaxanthis, 2003). Study of trained load sharing which also contributes to economic typists showed that successful use was made of it muscle use. The muscles situated in the hand are in the production of the finger fall onto the keys very small and have little endurance, so the larger (Kuo et al., 2006). However, typing a computer muscles on the arm help to move the fingers. key does not typically require graded exertion of Larger muscles have greater endurance (Herzog, finger force as needed with keystrokes to provide 2000) so there is a decided advantage in deriving the tone and timbre needed. energy from larger muscles. Therefore, use of Although the rate of acceleration does not momentum transfer from the larger muscles of change with the weight of objects, what does the arm ensures fast and accurate movement change is their momentum3, so in music this for longer periods contributing to technique means that greater impact force can be imparted sustainability. If this does not happen muscles to the keys. In addition, higher falls build up situated on the forearm are active in assisting greater speed, so the larger the momentum finger force, and these have long tendons with a similar effect on the impulse that can be passing through the carpal tunnel (see Figure delivered. In music this applies to the height of 1). This is the anatomical structure responsible the hand above the keyboard. So whereas the for carpal tunnel syndrome, to which females are particularly susceptible (Brandfonbrener & 2. CNS – includes the brain and spine Kjelland, 2002). 3. Momentum – a measure of the weight of an object and the speed at which it is travelling. 94 2012, No. 2 Pianism meets science, sustainable performance The Research and Arm Weight this study provided evidence supporting early opinions that proposing that the weight of the (i) Gravity and the Downswing forearm could be used to provide the energy for a To clarify whether pianists could successfully use keystroke. The rest of the investigations used the the downward force of gravity to produce the struck and pressed touches for comparison. downswing, muscular activity was investigated while playing right-hand octaves (Furuya, Osu (ii) The Keystroke with Increasing Sound & Kinoshita, 2009). Expert pianists all of whom Level or Tempo had won international prizes were compared Varying loudness or tempo are both necessary with novices, and the experimental set-up is adjuncts to playing, and finger force was illustrated in Figure 2. The trunk is inclined determined using force transducers in the keys, forward, with elbows clear of the trunk and the with classical pianists. Each played with the the elbow is positioned at an angle between 100- struck touch which is initiated after lifting the 110o, the position that allows the muscles to lift arm to above the key surface, and pressed touch the forearm faster. which emanates from key level. Performance The expert pianists successfully relaxed of an octave was used to study the impact of the forearm muscles, showing clearly that the increasing the sound level at four dynamic forearm was in free-fall, whereas the forearm was increments from piano to forte (Kinoshita, Furuya, lowered by the novice pianists using muscular Aoki & Altenmüller, 2007). Tempo ranged from action, and so adding to the energy cost. The 70 to 260 bpm and was examined by alternately authors concluded that, for the experts, the striking two keys an octave apart (Furuya, Goda, energy for the key force was not generated solely Katayose, Miwa & Nagata, 2011) by the muscles operating the fingers but by larger muscles of the upper-arm and shoulder which transferred energy to assist the smaller muscles. Figure 2: Experimental set-up for neuroscience This study showed that gravity can be used research on piano playing technique. The keys to make the downswing energy-efficient and so are fitted with force transducers, and the pianist has joint markers and EMG electrodes on the arm complex for research data collection. Figure 1: The illustration shows there if limited space in the carpal tunnel so when the tendons get inflamed with muscle overuse, the median nerve which innervates the finger muscles is pressed against the transverse ligament.   Permission given by Dr S. Furuya, 25th October, 2012 Image courtesy of www.carpal-tunnel.com   http,//www.neuropiano.net/english Australian Journal of Music Education 95 James In both conditions, the struck touch showed four each tempi and sound levels (Furuya, Aoki, lower finger force levels at forte when compared Nakahara & Kinoshita, 2012). At fast tempo, with the pressed touch. Muscle activity was muscle activity and finger force showed a needed at key contact in the loudest and fastest progressively greater increase with loudness level, conditions to provide greater control of the rather than an increase at the same rate. finger-tip. The struck touch produced higher However, not all pianists used the same hand acceleration and it was delivered faster. movement pattern, and three variations were By contrast, the pressed touch needed longer differentiated. The least successful patterns application time to generate the required amount showed decreased speed in the elbow and, of force for key strike. Downward movement an increased movement speed in the fingers of the hand at the wrist was greater with the indicating a greater reliance on both the muscles struck touch producing forward motion of the in the hand and on the forearm. The most forearm. This movement raised the forearm for efficient group raised the wrist faster as sound a vigorous key depression and louder and faster level increased to place the fingers in an optimum sound (Furuya et al., 2006) because more force is position for force transfer and movement speed transmitted from the finger to the key when the of the elbow joint increased indicating greater end of the finger is perpendicular to the keys. muscular activity from the larger muscles and These findings suggest that for the struck assisting with efficient muscle use. Pianists in this touch, the large force at forte was due to the cluster were international piano competitions combined effect of greater energy transfer from winners, and only they were able to use gravity the muscles of the upper arm and shoulder. The at higher tempo/sound level combination to pattern of force delivery with the struck touch prepare for the next keystroke. showed a rapid initial impact at fortissimo sound level; whereas the pressed touch needed a longer (iv) Psychoacoustics – Perceived Timbre period of muscular action to deliver the force level needed. In addition, expert pianists had Touch is known to create different audience greater finger acceleration, and increased muscle perceptions of timbre (Goebl, Bresin & Galembo, activity to stabilise the finger joints was also need 2004) which suggested touch type might be used at the highest sound level, although not at the to manipulate tone timbre. Therefore, differences lower sound levels. Because high finger force between listener impressions of tone timbre results in greater precision of finger placement is when pianists used the struck or pressed touch needed (Fitts, 1954). were determined in a psychoacoustic experiment The struck touch in the alternate finger strikes (Furuya, Altenmüller, Katayose & Kinoshita, 2010). resulted in higher movement paths of the thumb Listener reaction gauged in this study was and little finger indicating that gravity was that the struck touch appeared louder and assisting the downstroke. In addition, this would the pressed touch softer. This indicated the have been complemented by rebound to lift the difference is related to the key-force profiles, thumb or little finger quickly which is known to influence acoustic qualities (Kinoshita et al., 2007). As discussed above, the struck touch produces a rapid initial force with (iii) Interaction of Loudness and Tempo on earlier movement of the key in comparison with the Keystroke the pressed touch. The pressed touch with a To establish the effect of increasing both tempo more gradual force development lengthened the and sound level simultaneously, eighteen skilled acoustic qualities, leading to the conclusion that pianists played octaves with a combination of in spite of relative inefficiency over the struck 96 2012, No. 2 Pianism meets science, sustainable performance touch, the pressed touch is indispensable in keys (Furuya et al., 2006). The contribution of accomplishing soft tone timbre. So when loud gravity is noted also in hand and finger motion timbre is needed, particularly during fast playing in alternating movements an octave apart with the struck touch is more physiologically efficient. the bouncing movement, particularly when In contrast, the pressed touch indispensable playing at a fast tempo, as long as the hand is in producing sustained mellow timbre needed held above the keys, so more force is delivered by for cantabile playing (Furuya et al., 2012). So it one digit which then creates a reaction force to belongs to fine movements and uses a relatively help with the alternating action for the other digit extended finger posture rather than curved. (Furuya et al., 2011). The evidence is strong that starting a keystroke from higher than key level Discussion is a valuable procedure in facilitating economic movement patterns in playing. It is essential also Playing technique is connected intimately with that reaction force not be inhibited at the end of performance by providing movement patterns force delivery because of unnecessary muscular produced automatically to give the performer contraction to do so. Correct training should build the opportunity to exhibit musicianship. the motor skill to relax muscles after force has This means that the playing technique must been absorbed in the keystroke. be physiologically efficient so playing looks The struck touch allowed playing octaves unforced, and the pianist’s concentrated can in the most efficient way, staccato touch and be dedicated to the aural effect and intelligent movement in alternating finger action which can phrasing. The objective of this paper was to be extrapolated to the action in trajectories of the explore the use of external forces such as gravity hand and fingers in a leap across the keyboard. in the downward motions of the forearms/hands On the other hand, the traditional touch is far to reduce muscular effort in playing. The research better for a warm, full-bodied legato sound showed categorically that external force can be needed in so many compositions. Extending used successfully when applied by dropping the fingers while initiating the keystroke from onto the keys from above the keyboard, as long keyboard level, rather than curving them is as muscles are relaxed during the downswing important because the fleshy pads of flatter (Furuya et al., 2009). The findings indicated that fingers allow a bigger skin area to touch the pianists using the struck touch needed muscular surface of the key (Parncutt & Troup, 2002). assistance only at high tempo or sound levels for Audience members in a live performance are also stiffening the finger joints for added precision. affected by their visual impression, so the latter It also helped by producing lower force levels type of playing induced emotions differing from than with the pressed touch (Furuya et al., 2011). those resulting from fast and loud playing which Finger force was also delivered faster with the can leave the impression of loss of phase shape struck touch through the increase in momentum with regard to the theme (Schutz & Lipscomb, which in turn increased the impact force resulting 2007). in greater physiological efficiency than the Efficient muscular activity through the use procedure needing a more sustained delivery of of gravity and its associated mechanical laws force. can assist in preventing fatigue while playing Gravity has been shown to be useful to muscle compositions of long-duration especially sonatas activity in finger movement in typists (Kuo et which traditionally have fast first and third al., 2006) and undoubtedly assists in the actual movements. This is important because fatigue finger fall in playing the piano with curved fingers causes a potential loss of accuracy making so as also to deliver greater impact force to the Australian Journal of Music Education 97 James increased muscular action necessary to control long hours of practice daily (Jabusch, Alpers, the fingers necessary for touch precision (Fitts, Kopiez, Vauth & Altenmüller, 2009). Help also 1954). This thinking also attaches to choice of needs to be given to students to plan practice repertoire for a competition, sometimes involving strategies to reduce muscular overuse. three scores being played concurrently, or during Benefits from even small increases in a concert performance. movement efficiency make good sense, particularly with repetitive force application. This Implications for Injury Prevention implies also that time spent in active practice may need to have duration decreased, with an Most medical problems of musicians are the increase in mental practice. The strategies used shared consequence of performance technique by the expert pianists making full use of external and repertoire interaction with the physiological forces, and in transferring energy from larger limitations of the MS tissues and restrictions muscles to smaller are undoubtedly helpful of the skeletal architecture. The latter favours in preventing injury. These are key factors for rotational and curvilinear motion, although the the stress related problems induced by finger keyboard is linear which implies having to use force, and have important implications in the greater muscular activity. Pianists are particularly prevention of over-use injuries (Furuya et al., prone to injury and the finger/hand has a high 2006). Early treatment of injury is to be preferred, rate of PRMDs with overuse of muscular tissues a but students have a fear of being told to cease primary causal factor (Brandfonbrener & Kjelland, practice, whereas some degree of customary 1992). Some of commonly reported severe cases musical activity is preferred, because it helps are carpal tunnel syndrome, and tendonitis retain facility. In addition, tissues retain elasticity developing in the forearms and hands (Fry, 1991; and vascularity even when the duration of use is Pak & Chesky, 2001).There is some evidence reduced (Brandfonbrener & Kjelland, 2002). that pianists using arm weight experience fewer injuries through working with, rather than against Practice gravity (Allsop & Ackland, 2010). Of concern was that not all trained pianists had the motor skills Practice is a major activity in score development, to play at high tempo and with increasing sound because it becomes more prolific and level to keep muscular activity at a minimum concentrated at the tertiary level, and as most (Furuya et al., 2012), so there existed the potential PRMDs occur with overplaying of some sort, and for stress to tissues (Fry, 1991). Very small intervals can become chronic, what happens in this time between keystrokes appear to hinder proper must be considered. It is important, therefore, organisation of the downstroke increasing that individual students be given instruction muscular control of the fingers. This also has on how to organise practice-time. This means needs to be considered when organising practice planning the duration of active and rest periods, strategy, particularly in the early learning stage of and the order in which the skills are practiced so score preparation in helping to establish efficient there is a warm-up period. Active periods should movement patterns. be aimed at reducing the potential for muscular A concerning finding was that of increased overuse, remembering also that with increased stress of playing loudly with fast tempo resulting work periods, as people become fatigued, their in almost continuous keystrokes (Furuya et mental focus and accuracy decline. Research al., 2012) with implications for fatigue and shows that it is not necessary always to practice in maintaining an efficient technique. Plus, given an active way, and other methods can lead to the its high toll on the body, it is important for same increases in neuronal development. Mental preventing injury in active pianists performing rehearsal is a cognitive process that complements 98 2012, No. 2 Pianism meets science, sustainable performance physical rehearsal and helps lead to the facility needed. This, in turn raises the question development of performance expertise. For the of when to begin training in efficient playing performer, musical ideas are primarily registered procedures. in written notation, and mental rehearsal can take place with or without the score. Studying a Skill Acquisition in Children score silently has benefits for musicians, and can enhance the quality of the eventual performance Neuroscience research shows that training (Bravo & Fine, 2009). Practice methods being such children before seven to eight years can assist in an important field, they need to be tailored to the developing special motor skills when the brain individual student. is most plastic (Altenmüller & Gruhn, 2002), and There is also the question of how the practice technical concepts such as arm weight can be regime fits score development. Slow practice introduced quite early (Kase, 2001). Such training seems the best way to begin because practicing has the potential to educate children about piano keystrokes at fast tempo or loudly too early the use of their body in playing when they are may have the risk of preventing the acquisition of receptive. It is also more cost-effective to learn skilful movement coordination. Spatial accuracy good skills from the start rather than having to demand becomes higher with an increase in retrain pianists at a later stage. The automation tempo and loudness (Fitts, 1954) so that so it of motor skills involves building extensive is safer that training begins at a slower tempo neuronal networks, and unlearning them means (Furuya et al., 2012), and only when movement destroying present networks and building others patterns are well established should work to compensate, and this is counterproductive proceed at increased tempo with augmentation with both time and energy use (Altenmüller & of sound levels later, or when necessary. Gruhn, 2002). Therefore, pedagogy should aim at methods to train pianists early to establish motor Motor Skills skills in the optimum way. Pianists must acquire appropriate motor skills The Importance of Applications of Research to precisely control the timing of the muscular Findings to Training relaxation phases in the downswing and keystroke, the force needed, and the coordination The use of proven protective mechanisms rely movements of multiple joints in the hand and on academics actioning relevant scientific arm for accuracy and expressiveness. This requires research findings. In its absence, teachers may highly skilled motor action (Bernstein, 1967). The not be equipped to prevent potential injuries to pianists more successful in dealing with increased students especially at a time training becomes tempo and loudness showed they had developed most intense. The result is that some pianists are specialized motor skills for virtuoso performance. robbed of future careers as elite pianists (Bruno The researchers implied that the needed motor et al., 2008). Proper training is the responsibility skills develop after years of training by pianists of the teaching facility, and there are legal with an innate talent to refine neuromuscular implications with not providing direction to system control, (Furuya et al., 2012). It remains a both music teachers and students. A not fully mystery why some pianists can maintain virtuosic understood complication is that professional performance throughout a two-hour concert music teaching facilities have a duty of care (Furuya et al., 2009). This, however, raises the under occupational health and safety law to question of the likely impact of the way students manage potential risks to their students by way are taught right from their early years, so they of meeting their legal responsibilities in relation have years of practice to develop the special to training and information (Bennett, 2007). Australian Journal of Music Education 99 James Each Australian state has enacted relevant laws understanding of skill acquisition in both pre- with obligatory codes of practice addressing risk and post-pubertal young people. These two management. It is also a matter of best business groups are at different levels of brain and MS practice, because it is less costly to the individual development, and these need to be considered and to the community in the long-run. As overuse as the study of sport has done. injuries are one of the identified problem areas, a policy such as has been established by RMIT Acknowledgments University may be needed to indicate that health For help with discussing the topic, I wish to and safety is being attended to adequately. thank Dr Allan Coles and Emeritus Professor Tony Parker, Faculty of Health, School for Public Conclusions Health and Social Work for consultation and helpful comments and, Professor S. 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Muscle properties and coordination The sensorimotor and cognitive integration of gravity. during voluntary movement. Journal of Sports Science, Brain Research Review, 28, 92-101. 18, 141-152. RMIT. (2012). Prevention of overuse injuries policy. rmit. Jabusch, H. C., Alpers, H., Kopiez, R., Vauth, H. & Altenmüller, E. netau/browse;ID=urqsjzdfetexz Cached (2009). The influence of practice on the development of Russell, D. L. (2012). Establishing a biomechanical basis motor skills in pianists, A longitudinal study in a selected for injury preventative piano pedagogy*, arcco (chm), motor task. Human Movement Science, 28, 74-84. Ph.D. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Kapandji, I. A. (1978) The physiology of the joints - Volume 1 Engineering Carleton University, Ottawa Accessed 11 Upper Limb, Second Edition, Figure 53, p169, London: August 2012 Churchill Livingstone. Schutz, M. & Lipscomb, S. (2007). Hearing gestures, seeing Kase, S. (2001). Clusters, The essence of musicality and music, vision influences perceived tone duration. technique. Piano Journal, 22 (64), 13-18. Perception, 36, 888–897. doi, 10.1068/p5635. Kinoshita, H., Furuya. S., Aoki, T. & Altenmüller, E. (2007). Zaza, C., & Farewell, V. T. (1997). Musicians playing-related Loudness control in pianists as exemplified in keystroke musculoskeletal disorders, an examination of risk force measurements at different touches. Journal of the factors, American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 32, Acoustical Society of America, 121 (5 Pt1), 2959-2969. 292-300. Kuerti, A. (2012). Journey to the Sublime, SBS Broadcast Anton and the Piano 24 March 2012. Barbara James PhD (Movement Science) received her education in the School of Human Movement Studies at the University of Queensland. Her post-graduate education revolved around Biomechanics and Functional Anatomy. She has worked in Applied Sport Science with the Research Centre of Excellence at the Queensland Academy of Sport, and with Industry as an Ergonomist dealing with legal obligations under OHS law. Her current interest is in applying movement science to piano performance, the catalyst being her own experience in learning the piano, the examination system, and the need to apply the growing body of research to aspects of playing technique, especially for the prevention of injury in pianists. Australian Journal of Music Education 101