Vocabulary Knowledge 7 7 7 0 2 7 7 1 9 9 5 0 0 4 0 0 / 7 7 1 1 Enhancing 0. 1 OI: D hor(s). Adolescents’ ut A e h T 7 1 0 ht 2 Comprehension of g yri p o C 4. 9 4 – Text by Building 8 p. p 2, o. N 0, Vocabulary Knowledge 5 ol. V n, e dr hil C al n o pti Elizabeth Swanson, Sharon Vaughn, and Jade Wexler e xc E G N HI C A E T Ms. Baxter spends fourth period every rate, students learn about 24,000 to Several studies indicate that day in an eighth-grade general 36,000 words from kindergarten to teacher-directed explicit instruction education social studies class where she Grade 12, a small portion of the 60,000 influences vocabulary acquisition supports the needs of students with to 100,000 words that college-bound (Elleman et al., 2009; Harmon et al., disabilities. She monitors students’ students ought to have at their 2005). They also provide guidance for work and checks in with students command (Hirsch, 2003). elements that should be reflected (Murawski & Swanson, 2001), typically It is not only the number of words within explicit instructional routines: while the social studies teacher presents that matters. Students need to know a content-related information through variety of words in a range of •• New vocabulary should be related lecture or PowerPoint presentation disciplines. This requires teachers to to other words and concepts. (Swanson, Wanzek, McCulley, et al., provide effective vocabulary instruction, •• Students should be provided several 2016). As she goes through her containing multiple elements (Elleman, opportunities to practice using new classroom routine, Ms. Baxter reflects Lindo, Morphy, & Compton, 2009; vocabulary within context. on the needs of the students with Hairrell et al., 2010), including: •• Vocabulary exercises should be disabilities. They rarely read. They meaningful to students and should rarely speak. They are not actively •• Teacher-directed explicit instruction require higher-level thinking and engaged in lessons. She wonders how in student-friendly word meanings processing. she can better help these students. At a and related words and in recent professional development morphology In addition, discourse is important. session, Ms. Baxter learned more about •• Text-based instruction that includes Using oral language during explicit the effect of vocabulary instruction on classroom discourse focused on new vocabulary instruction is important and content knowledge (e.g., Goodwin & vocabulary effective. In a recent study (Clarke, Ahn, 2010; Swanson, Wanzek, Vaughn, •• Multiple exposures to key words Snowling, Truelove, & Hulme, 2010), et al., 2016; Wanzek, Swanson, and concepts in rich content-based students who received oral language Vaughn, Roberts, & Fall, 2016) and contexts vocabulary instruction outperformed broader reading comprehension (e.g., •• Active student engagement, students who received metacognitive Swanson, Wanzek, Vaughn et al., including using, listening for, and strategy instruction on a measure of 2016), and she thinks that she might be writing new words and concepts reading comprehension. In addition, able to implement this type of the gains were sustained at 11-month instruction in this co-taught social Teacher-Directed Explicit follow-up. This is in stark contrast to Vocabulary Instruction studies classroom. the type of vocabulary instruction most When students learn new content, often observed in general education Vocabulary is a powerful ingredient for whether through reading or listening, classes where students with disabilities reading comprehension (e.g., Ahmed they face a density of unfamiliar receive content-area instruction. In et al., 2016; Cromley & Azevedo, 2007). vocabulary (Harmon, Hedrick, & Wood, these settings, very little discourse Ahmed and colleagues (2016) 2005). The sheer volume of unfamiliar related to key vocabulary takes place. examined several predictors of reading vocabulary often presents a challenge Instead, either teachers tell students comprehension among middle and to teachers as they help students read the definition of key vocabulary, or high school students and reported that and make sense of content-area texts students are given a list of key vocabulary knowledge predicts reading (Hairrell et al., 2010; Harmon, Hedrick, vocabulary and they copy the comprehension at all grade levels. In & Fox, 2000). In addition, many definitions from the textbook glossary addition, vocabulary knowledge and textbook recommendations for (Swanson, Wanzek, McCulley, et al., background knowledge were highly vocabulary instruction do not align 2016; Swanson, Wanzek, Vaughn, correlated, which suggests that with documented best practices Roberts, & Fall, 2015; Wexler, Mitchell, students with stronger vocabularies (Harmon et al., 2000). This requires Clancy, & Silverman, 2017). also had greater background teachers to design their own Active, explicit vocabulary knowledge. In this way, vocabulary instructional materials to introduce new instruction that encourages discourse knowledge contributes to a one-two vocabulary (e.g., in social studies, teach should look and sound different and punch toward reading comprehension. the meaning of words such as should engage students in a series of The question then becomes “What revolution and colony) and explain how supports that include vocabulary learning goals should we this new vocabulary relates to content set for our students?” Students learn an area concepts (e.g., explain that the •• clear statements about the purpose estimated 2,000 to 3,000 new words North American colonies were ruled by and rationale for learning new per year (Stahl & Nagy, 2006) through England and when the colonists vocabulary, reading and talking as well as through became dissatisfied with English rule, •• clear explanations and modeling of explicit classroom instruction. At that they decided to revolt). instructional activities, TEACHING ExcEptional childrEn | novEmbEr/dEcEmbEr 2017 85 •• guided practice with feedback that and engage in strategies to learn the Coxhead’s (2000) Academic Word List, should be provided until students words’ meanings (e.g., Carr, 1985). In which consists of 570 “headwords” achieve independent mastery, and a series of studies (Vaughn et al., 2011; that can be used to understand about •• active participation by all students Vaughn, Swanson, et al., 2013), middle 3,000 other words in the family. For (Archer & Hughes, 2011). school students were taught an in-text example, by knowing the headword vocabulary learning strategy as part of abandon, a student may also derive the a suite of reading strategies. Struggling meanings of abandoned, abandoning, Text-Based Vocabulary readers who received the in-text abandonment, and abandons. Figure 1 Instruction vocabulary learning strategy instruction provides a list of 50 headwords that When students read more, vocabulary outperformed those who did not on teachers might consider teaching. knowledge increases (Cunningham & measures of reading comprehension Although there is some evidence Stanovich, 2003; Krashen, 2004). Out (Hedges’s g, ES = 0.36; Vaughn et al., that morphology instruction can of every 100 unknown words that 2011). In sum, to boost vocabulary increase students’ word identification, students encounter while reading, they knowledge through text-based spelling ability, vocabulary, and learn an average of 15 of them from approaches, students with disabilities reading comprehension (Fishley, text alone (Swanborn & de Glopper, should not only read more but be Konrad, Hessler, & Keesey, 2012; 1999). In addition, as students age, taught strategies for learning the Goodwin, 2016; Reed, 2008), among they are more likely to infer word meanings of words (Harmon et al., students with disabilities, morphology meanings, indicating that word 2005). instruction alone is probably not robust learning through reading may actually enough to substantially improve the increase over time (Swanborn & de reading ability of students with Glopper, 1999). Because lower-level Morphology-Based Vocabulary disabilities (Reed, 2008). In one Instruction readers make fewer and less helpful example where morphology instruction inferences (e.g., Cain & Oakhill, 1999, Morphology is important for learning was paired with context clue 2007; Denton et al., 2015), it may be word meanings and reading, regardless instruction (i.e., reading around the more difficult for students with of a child’s background knowledge, word), middle school students with disabilities to build vocabulary through vocabulary, or understanding of disabilities performed better on reading wide reading alone. Instead, students phonics (Deacon & Kirby, 2004). As comprehension outcomes than with disabilities may require teacher students get older, the contribution of students who received morphology- support during text reading to morphological analysis to reading only training (Brown, Lignugaris-Kraft, encourage higher-quality inferences ability increases (e.g., Carlisle & Stone, & Forbush, 2016). In another example, and greater gains in vocabulary 2005; Reed, 2008). According to the middle school students who received knowledge (Wilkinson, Wardrop, & morphological generalization morphology plus comprehension Anderson, 1988). hypothesis, students “draw upon strategy instruction outperformed their What should teachers do during this knowledge of a familiar word to aid peers on vocabulary outcomes when text-reading time? Students are more them in deriving the meaning of an compared with peers who received likely to learn vocabulary while reading unfamiliar, but related, word” (Wysocki comprehension strategy instruction when they can identify difficult words & Jenkins, 1987, p. 69). Consider alone (Goodwin, 2016). Figure 1. Sample of 50 headwords from Axel Coxhead’s academic word list abandon data gender label access debate generate labor accommodate decade generation minimum achieve decline globe mode acknowledge deduce grant modify controversy energy identify monitor convene enforce ideology motive converse enhance ignorance obtain convert enormous illustrate obvious convince ensure image ongoing currency expand job relax cycle expert journal release justify relevant Note. For the complete list, visit http://www.uefap.com/vocab/select/awl.htm 86 council for ExcEptional childrEn Morphology should also be taught vocabulary instruction, (b) text-based focus on the remaining sections consistently over time with a long-term instruction, and (c) morphology-based of the vocabulary map. This is dedication to steadily building instruction. Ms. Baxter suggests that her followed by a 10-minute lesson adolescents’ morpheme knowledge. To co-teacher continue to be the content that focuses on root words illustrate, when middle school students expert while Ms. Baxter takes a more commonly encountered in social were provided a short, four-lesson dose active teaching role to influence content studies. (totaling 2 hours) of morphology plus knowledge and reading comprehension comprehension strategy instruction, through vocabulary development. She By following this schedule, students they learned more words and were able suggests serving in the lead teacher role will learn a minimum of six to 10 to generate a greater number of for two 50-minute class periods per vocabulary words every week using morphologically similar words than week (see Figure 2): explicit instructional techniques students in a comprehension strategy– combined with text-based vocabulary only condition. However, students in Explicit vocabulary instruction: instruction and morphology-based both groups performed equally well on Ms. Baxter teaches for 10 instruction. a measure of reading comprehension minutes at the beginning of the In preparing for vocabulary (Goodwin, 2016). The author of the class period. She uses instruction, the first question that Ms. study suggested that additional vocabulary maps (see Figure 3) Baxter and her co-teacher need to morphology instruction expanded to that feature a set of instructional address is “What essential vocabulary prefixes, suffixes, and roots, combined routines proven to improve words should we teach, and how with a longer duration, may very well outcomes for students with many do we select?” Even experts produce a greater impact on reading disabilities. Instruction focuses cannot always agree on which comprehension. on key vocabulary related to the vocabulary to teach, but they do agree unit of study that Ms. Baxter on how to make the decision (e.g., and her co-teacher identify McKeown & Beck, 2004): (a) Select Co-Teaching Vocabulary in the together. words that are necessary for Content Areas Text-based instruction: Ms. Baxter understanding the content of the unit For Ms. Baxter to successfully implement leads students as they read text and are useful in subsequent learning; practices to improve the vocabulary of for 20 minutes, focusing on (b) select about three to five words students with disabilities, the content- learning content while each week, and review them in area teacher must also make changes to highlighting vocabulary. To select subsequent weeks; (c) do not worry if her instruction. Thus, Ms. Baxter works text, Ms. Baxter confers with her you do not have time to adequately with her co-teacher to come up with a co-teacher when needed and teach all of the words—instead, plan to improve students’ vocabulary chooses text aligned to the encourage students to recognize and reading comprehension while current social studies unit. words that they do not understand, maintaining a focus on covering the Explicit vocabulary and morphology and help students develop strategies content. Her plan combines three types instruction: Ms. Baxter ends each for learning word meaning (e.g., of vocabulary instruction: (a) explicit class period with a 10-minute Vaughn et al., 2011; Vaughn, Roberts, Figure 2. Sample weekly schedule of teaching duties Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 10 Explicit Explicit vocabulary vocabulary instruction instruction 20 Text based Text based Number of vocabulary General vocabulary General General minutes 30 instruction education instruction education education teacher teacher teacher 40 Explicit instruction Explicit instruction instruction vocabulary vocabulary instruction instruction 50 Morphology Morphology lesson lesson TEACHING ExcEptional childrEn | novEmbEr/dEcEmbEr 2017 87 Figure 3. STRIVE vocabulary map Note. Teachers may produce additional maps for vocabulary words that they would like to teach. et al., 2013); and (d) make learning Before-reading routine. The goal of remember what “revolution” new words interesting and fun. instruction before reading is to identify means. I want you to Consider a middle school social and preteach vocabulary central to text underline these words with studies unit on the Roaring Twenties understanding. These activities provide me. First, revolutions are (Swanson & Wanzek, 2014). students with an initial level of always started by people, so Vocabulary selections might include vocabulary knowledge to facilitate their underline “people.” They are consumer economy, prosperity, mass comprehension as they read the text. trying to overthrow the media, demographics, and social Sections of the vocabulary map are government, so underline revolution. These words are applicable numbered to assist teachers as they “overthrow” and to not only social studies units navigate the individual parts. “government.” Now all we covering early U.S. history but also need to think of is “People world history, economics, and even Box 1: Students read the word—for overthrow government” to help geography. example, revolution. us remember the meaning of Teacher script: Everyone put your “revolution.” finger on Box 1. The first word Box 3: Students are directed to the Vocabulary Routine Using Explicit today is “revolution.” Everyone visual representation of the word Instruction say “revolution.” (Student to aid memory. The teacher The explicit instruction vocabulary response: Revolution.) should explain to students how routine (Hairrell et al., 2011; Simmons Box 2: Students underline key words they might use the visual to et al., 2010) is divided into two in the provided definition that remember the word’s meaning. sections: before- and after-reading help them remember the Teacher script: Put your finger on routines. For each word, the teacher meaning of revolution. Box 3. Here we see a picture. uses a vocabulary map (see Figure 3) Teacher script: Put your finger on In it, we see people who are to guide instruction, student note Box 2. Alonzo, please read the marching. They look like they taking, and exercises to learn the new definition of “revolution.” are doing something. What word. Vocabulary maps are key to the Everyone else follow along are they doing in this picture? routines in that they guide explicit with your finger (Alonzo reads (Student response: Going into instruction that has been shown to be the definition aloud). Within battle, fighting.) In a effective among students with this definition, there are a few revolution, what do they hope disabilities (e.g., Kamil et al., 2008). words that will really help you to achieve? (Student response: 88 council for ExcEptional childrEn Overthrowing the can tell me a short definition rewrite that sentence. Let’s government.) Yes. So, when of “revolution”? (Student keep the first part, “My you read the word response: People brother started a “revolution,” think of these overthrowing govern - revolution,” but let’s finish three men marching into ment.) Good. Let’s look at the the sentence in a different battle to overthrow the first word—“song.” Does way. Who can help? (Student government. “song” have anything to do response: My brother Box 4: Students choose which word with people overthrowing started a revolution when is used correctly in context. For government? (Student he didn’t agree with the multimeaning words, such as response: No.) Correct. So governm ent’s laws.) revolution, students must don’t circle that word. What Box 7: Students write at least one discriminate between the about the second word— new word with the same root. relevant social studies meaning “war”? Thumbs up if you Teacher script: Put your finger and another more common think it’s related to on Box 7. In this box, we are meaning. “revolution.” Thumbs going to use our knowledge of Teacher script: Put your finger on down if you do not think it word parts to create a new Box 4. In this box, you see two is related. Andy, I see that word using “revolution” as our sentences. We will read these you put your thumb up. Can starting place. Last week, I two sentences and decide you explain to us why “war” taught you what the suffix which one uses the word is related to “revolution”? “-tion” means. Who can “revolution” according to our (Student response: One way remind us? (Student response: definition. Sam, will you people can fight against the We use -tion to turn a verb please read the first sentence? government is by going to into a noun.) Good! So, in (Student response: The war.) Correct. So, circle the revolution, let’s take off the colonists started a revolution word “war.” (Continue in “-tion” suffix. What verb do because they didn’t want to this manner with the we have left? (Student pay more taxes.) Blanca, will remaining words.) response: Revolu?) Close. But you please read the second Box 6: Students write a sentence that “revolu” isn’t a word. Can you sentence? (Student response: uses the target word. They may think of a word that sounds After one revolution on the refer to the illustration for ideas. similar to “revolu” but is a merry-go-round, I felt sick.) T eacher script: Put your finger real word. It also starts with Both of those sentences make on Box 6. In this box, you r-e-v-o-l. (Student response: sense. It turns out the word will be writing a sentence Revolt!) Yes, “revolt” is a verb “revolution” has two different using the word “revolution.” that is related to the word meanings. In which sentence I will give you 1 minute to “revolution.” Everyone, please do we see “revolution” write your sentence. Who write “revolt” in the box. meaning “people overthrowing would like to share their (Continue instruction to government”? (Student sentence? (Student res - write additional related response: Sentence A.) ponse: My brother started words.) Correct. Circle Sentence A. a revolution when he didn’t Box 8: This is a turn-and-talk want to do his homework.) opportunity to connect the After-reading routine. A crucial aspect Let’s see if your use of vocabulary word to content. of effective vocabulary instruction is “revolution” matches our Teacher script: Put your finger distributed practice. By engaging social studies definition. on Box 8. Turn to your partner students in vocabulary activities before What is the social studies and discuss the answer to this reading and again after reading, the definition of revolution? question: “If you were a teacher provides multiple exposures to Look back on your colonist living in Texas long the word over time to deepen knowledge vocabulary log if need be. ago, would you have of the target vocabulary. (Student response: People supported the revolution? Why overthrowing government.) or why not?” (Provide Box 5: To refine vocabulary In your sentence, your students about 30 seconds to knowledge, students identify brother is a person, so that discuss. Monitor discussion semantically related vocabulary. fits our definition. He also and note high-quality Teacher script: Put your finger wants to overthrow responses. Regroup students, on Box 5. In this box, we are something, so that fits. But and ask those with high- looking for words that are is he overthrowing a quality responses to share related to “revolution.” Who government? No. So, let’s theirs with the class.) TEACHING ExcEptional childrEn | novEmbEr/dEcEmbEr 2017 89 As a teacher, you might wonder knowledge are (a) wide reading and (b) Reading around the word. “Reading how you could possibly develop reading around the word. around the word” encourages students vocabulary maps for all of the to look for clues in the text to enhance vocabulary words that you need to Wide reading. Ms. Baxter realized their understanding of the unknown teach. Consider developing one or two that many of her students lacked word or concept. Sometimes words can vocabulary maps for each instructional background and vocabulary be better understood if one rereads the unit and adding vocabulary maps over knowledge because they read very sentence with the word in it. For time until you have a complete set. little, read at a low level, and read example, consider the following You could also work with teachers texts without sufficiently deep and sentence: She whistles continuously, not covering the same content by dividing varied content. This fact is stopping for a moment, and it annoys the task and then sharing the word problematic because students with me. Teachers can model for students maps. Finally, be aware that students disabilities who do not engage in how to determine the meaning of the may struggle with one or more of the wide reading are missing an word continuously by paying attention to instructional routines described. To opportunity to broaden their clues in the sentence. In addition to prevent ongoing confusion, we background and vocabulary rereading the sentence with the word in encourage teachers to model what is knowledge. Ms. Baxter and her it, sometimes it is helpful to read the expected of students and to engage co-teacher decided to implement the sentences before and after the one with them in guided practice for as long as following practices: (a) Increase the word, to look for helpful necessary to encourage understanding text-reading time to at least 50 information. Consider the following of each instructional routine. minutes a week, focusing on content sentences: The dates are listed in learning and reading around the word chronological order. They start with to learn new vocabulary; (b) increase events in January and end with events in Text-Based Vocabulary the range of texts to include letters, December. To determine the meaning of Instruction summaries, historical documents, and the word chronological, teach students to Ms. Baxter realized that students need to other key resources typically used to read the sentence after the sentence with learn many new words and that she and increase understanding of history; and the unknown word, which provides an her co-teacher did not have adequate (c) provide students with an example of the meaning of chronological. time to teach them all. They realized opportunity to use multiple texts to that students could learn strategies for build responses to questions and using the text to help them better justify positions. For guidance on how An example of text-based vocabulary understand the meaning of vocabulary to choose text for students with instruction. Consider the passage in needed for content learning. Two of the disabilities, refer to Swanson and Figure 4. This short passage provides best practices for promoting vocabulary Wexler’s (2017) article. for rich discussion of the vocabulary Figure 4. Selection from Studies Weekly Note. Reprinted from Studies Weekly (2017). Let the Revolution Begin. Retrieved from https://app.studiesweekly.com/online/ publications/47656/units/47690#/articles/48053. For additional reading selections, visit http://www.studiesweekly.com. 90 council for ExcEptional childrEn word revolution. Text-based (Student response: People who were they revolting against? vocabulary instruction that features overthrowing government.) (Student response: Mexicans.) discourse might sound something like Teacher script: Yes. While we read And why? (Student response: this: the first paragraph, I want you Because the Texans thought to identify who started the they were being treated revolution and what government unfairly.) Teacher script: The title of this were they trying to overthrow? Teacher script: Let’s continue passage is “Let the Revolution (Have a student read the first reading. (Have a student read the Begin.” “Revolution” is one of our two sentences and stop.) So, next two sentences.) Stop here vocabulary words. Who can tell who started the revolution? and consider another revolution. me what “revolution” means? (Student response: Texans.) And Why did the Texans originally Figure 5. Sample morphology lesson Note. Reprinted from Effective Instruction for Middle School Students With Reading Difficulties: The Reading Teacher’s Sourcebook, by C. Denton, D. Bryan, J. Wexler, D. Reed, and S. Vaughn, p. 191–192. Copyright 2007 by the University of Texas System/Texas Education Agency. Additional lessons can be located at https://www.meadowscenter.org/files/resources/RTS_Ch7.pdf. TEACHING ExcEptional childrEn | novEmbEr/dEcEmbEr 2017 91 need the cannon? (Student morphology to middle school students history textbooks more “considerate” response: To fight against the from Effective Instruction for Middle after 20 years? The Journal of American Indians.) Yes, so we had School Students With Reading Special Education, 47, 217–230. a battle between American Difficulties: The Reading Teacher’s doi:10.1177/0022466912436813 Brown, S. H., Lignugaris-Kraft, B., & Indians and Texans. Was this a Sourcebook (Denton, Bryan, Wexler, Forbush, D. E. (2016). The effects of revolution? Thumbs up if you Reed, & Vaughn, 2007) can be morphemic vocabulary instruction think it is an example of a downloaded at https://www on prefix vocabulary and sentence revolution. Thumbs down if you .meadowscenter.org/files/resources/ comprehension for middle school do not think it is an example of a RTS_Ch7.pdf. students with learning disabilities. revolution. (Ask two students to Education and Treatment of Children, share their thinking, and end with Conclusion 39, 301–338. doi:10.1353/etc.2016.0014 an explanation that the American Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. V. (1999). Students at the secondary level are Indians were revolting against the Inference making and its relation faced with reading and comprehending Texans.) to comprehension failure. Reading complex content-specific text, laden Continue the discussion with the and Writing, 11, 489–503. with challenging vocabulary that is doi:10.1023/A:1008084120205 remainder of the passage, and rarely explained within the text itself Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (2007). Reading focus questions and discourse on (Berkeley, King-Sears, Hott, & Bradley- comprehension difficulties: Correlates, understanding the meaning of Black, 2012; Lee & Spratley, 2010). causes, and consequences. In K. revolution. Knowing the meaning of these words Cain & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Children’s in this difficult text strongly relates to comprehension problems in oral and Morphology-Based Vocabulary comprehension. Therefore, to improve written language: A cognitive perspective (pp. 41–74). New York, NY: Guilford. Instruction students’ comprehension of text so Carlisle, J. F., & Stone, C. A. (2005). that students can ultimately acquire Ms. Baxter also learned at her Exploring the role of morphemes in word content knowledge, it is essential for professional development to teach reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 40, teachers to provide explicit vocabulary students how to derive the meaning of 428–449. doi:10.1598/RRQ.40.4.3 instruction and teach students some words from word parts. She Carr, E. M. (1985). The vocabulary independent word learning strategies overview guide: A metacognitive learned that the smallest unit of (e.g., reading around the word). To strategy to improve vocabulary meaning within a word is a target these needs, teachers can use a comprehension and retention. Journal of morpheme. Students can use their set of evidence-based vocabulary Reading, 28, 684–689. understanding of morphemic units to instructional practices, including Clarke, P., Snowling, M. J., Truelove, better understand the meaning of a providing direct and explicit E., & Hulme, C. (2010). Ameliorating word. For example, students may children’s reading comprehension vocabulary instruction, text-based struggle with the word revolution. difficulties: A randomized controlled vocabulary instruction, and However, if they see that the word has trial. Psychological Science, 21, 1106– morphology-based vocabulary several meaningful units, including 1116. doi:10.1177/0956797610375449 instruction. These practices are revolt and tion, they can determine Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word essential for all students but especially that the word has something to do list. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 213–238. for students with disabilities who are doi:10.2307/3587951 with “revolt,” and they can use some expected to be independent learners Cromley, J. G., & Azevedo, R. (2007). of the text around the word to further while facing a multitude of additional Testing and refining the direct and their understanding. Although students text-based challenges (e.g., word inferential mediation model of do not need to know the meaning of reading). reading comprehension. Journal of all prefixes, some of the more common Educational Psychology, 99, 311–325. ones are good to know, such as un-, doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.311 References re-, in-, im-, ir-, dis-, non-, over-, sub-, Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. and trans-. Teaching the meaning of Ahmed, Y., Francis, D. J., York, M., (2003). Reading matters: How reading common prefixes in the context of Fletcher, J. M., Barnes, M., & Kulesz, engagement influences cognition. In J. words, such as dislike, unhappy, and P. (2016). Validation of the direct and Flood, D. Lapp, J. R. Squire, & J. Jensen rewrite, helps students build a more inferential mediation (DIME) model (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching of reading comprehension in Grades 7 the English language arts (2nd ed., pp. complete vocabulary. While through 12. Contemporary Educational 666–674). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. morphology knowledge is used in the Psychology, 44, 68–82. doi:10.1016/j Deacon, S. H., & Kirby, J. R. (2004). vocabulary map described in this .cedpsych.2016.02.002 Morphological awareness: Just article, students may require Archer, A. L., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). “more phonological”? The roles of systematic explicit morphology Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient morphological and phonological instruction. See Figure 5 for a short teaching. New York, NY: Guilford. awareness in reading development. morphology lesson on the prefix un-. Berkeley, S., King-Sears, M. E., Hott, Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 223–238. Additional sample lessons for teaching B. L., & Bradley-Black, K. (2012). Are doi:10.1017/S0142716404001110 92 council for ExcEptional childrEn Denton, C., Bryan, D., Wexler, J., Reed, Hirsch, E. D. (2003). Reading comprehension Simmons, D., . . . Hairrell, A. (2016). D., & Vaughn, S. (2007). Effective requires knowledge—Of words and the Literacy and text reading in middle and instruction for middle school students world. American Educator, 27, 10–13. high school social studies and English with reading difficulties: The reading Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, language arts classrooms. Reading and teacher’s sourcebook. Austin, TX: C. C., Salinger, T., & Torgesen, J. (2008). Writing Quarterly, 32, 199–222. doi:10 Vaughn Gross Center for Reading and Improving adolescent literacy: Effective .1080/10573569.2014.910718 Language Arts. classroom and intervention practices—A Swanson, E., Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Denton, C. A., Wolters, C. A., York, M. J., practice guide (NCEE Report No. 2008- Fall, A.-M., Roberts, G., Hall, C., & Swanson, E., Kulesz, P. A., & Francis, 4027). Washington, DC: National Center Miller, V. (2016). Middle school reading D. J. (2015). Adolescents’ use of reading for Education Evaluation and Regional comprehension and content learning comprehension strategies: Differences Assistance. intervention for below average readers. related to reading proficiency, grade Krashen, S. D. (2004). The power of reading: Reading and Writing Quarterly. Advance level, and gender. Learning and Insights from research (2nd ed.). online publication. doi:10.1080/1057356 Individual Differences, 37, 81–95. 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