Trends in Higher Education Series Education Pays 2013 The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and Society Sandy Baum Jennifer Ma Kathleen Payea About the College Board The College Board is a mission-driven not-for-profit organization that connects students to college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, the College Board was created to expand access to higher education. Today, the membership association is made up of over 6,000 of the world’s leading educational institutions and is dedicated to promoting excellence and equity in education. Each year, the College Board helps more than seven million students prepare for a successful transition to college through programs and services in college readiness and college success — including the SAT® and the Advanced Placement Program®. The organization also serves the education community through research and advocacy on behalf of students, educators and schools. For further information, visit www.collegeboard.org. Trends in Higher Education The Trends in Higher Education publications include the Trends in College Pricing, Trends in Student Aid, and Education Pays series in addition to How College Shapes Lives: Understanding the Issues and other research reports and topical analysis briefs published periodically. These reports are designed to provide a foundation of evidence to strengthen policy discussions and decisions. In addition to the figures and tables included in this report, more information and data can be found on the Trends in Higher Education website: trends.collegeboard.org About the Authors Sandy Baum Research Professor, George Washington University Graduate School of Education and Human Development and Senior Fellow, the Urban Institute [email protected] Jennifer Ma Independent Consultant for the College Board [email protected] Kathleen Payea Policy Analyst, the College Board [email protected] The tables supporting all of the graphs in this report, a PDF version of the report, and a PowerPoint file containing individual slides for all of the graphs are available on our website at trends.collegeboard.org. Please feel free to cite or reproduce the data in this report for noncommercial purposes with proper attribution. For inquiries or ordering hard copies, please contact: [email protected] © 2013 The College Board. 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Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.org. 2 Education Pays 2013 Part 1: Individual and Societal Benefits Contents 5 Executive Summary 7 Introduction 10 Part 1: Individual and Societal Benefits of Higher Education Earnings 11 Education, Earnings, and FIGURE 1.1 Median Earnings and Tax Payments by Education Level, 2011 Tax Payments 12 Lifetime Earnings FIGURE 1.2 Lifetime Earnings Relative to High School Graduates by Education Level 13 Earnings Premium Relative FIGURE 1.3 Cumulative Earnings Net of Loan Repayment for Tuition and Fees, by to Price of Education Education Level 14 Earnings by Race/Ethnicity, FIGURE 1.4 Median Earnings by Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Education Level, 2009–2011 Gender, and Education Level 15 Earnings by Gender and FIGURE 1.5 Median, 25th Percentile, and 75th Percentile Earnings by Gender and Education Level Education Level, 2011 16 Earnings over Time by FIGURE 1.6 Median Earnings by Gender and Education Level, 1971–2011 Gender and Education Level 17 Earnings Paths FIGURE 1.7A Median Earnings of Full-Time Workers by Age and Education Level, 2009–2011 FIGURE 1.7B Median Earnings of All Workers by Age and Education Level, 2009–2011 Other Economic Benefits 18 Employment FIGURE 1.8A Number Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force by Education Level, 2002, 2007, and 2012 FIGURE 1.8B Labor Force Participation Rates by Age and Education Level, 2012 19 Unemployment FIGURE 1.9A Unemployment Rates by Education Level, 1992−2012 20 Unemployment FIGURE 1.9B Unemployment Rates by Age and Education Level, 2012 FIGURE 1.9C Unemployment Rates by Race/Ethnicity and Education Level, 2012 21 Job Satisfaction FIGURE 1.10A Sense of Learning New Things on the Job by Education Level, 2002, 2006, and 2010 FIGURE 1.10B Work Satisfaction Rates by Education Level, 1972–2012 22 Social Mobility FIGURE 1.11 Family Income Quintiles by Education and Parents’ Family Income, 2000–2008 23 Pension Plans FIGURE 1.12A Pension Plan Coverage by Education Level, 1991, 2001, and 2011 FIGURE 1.12B Participation Rates in Pension Plans by Education Level, 2011 24 Health Insurance FIGURE 1.13A Health Insurance Coverage of Full-Time Workers by Education Level, 1991, 2001, and 2011 FIGURE 1.13B Health Insurance Coverage of Part-Time Workers by Education Level, 1991, 2001, and 2011 25 Poverty FIGURE 1.14A Poverty Rates by Household Type and Education Level, 2011 FIGURE 1.14B Living Arrangements of Children by Poverty Status and Parents’ Education Level, 2011 26 Public Assistance Programs FIGURE 1.15 Public Assistance Program Participation Rates by Education Level, 2011 Health Benefits 27 Smoking FIGURE 1.16A Smoking Rates by Education Level, 1940–2012 FIGURE 1.16B Smoking Histories by Education Level, 2012 28 Exercise FIGURE 1.17A Exercise Rates by Age and Education Level, 2012 FIGURE 1.17B Participation in Aerobic Activities by Education Level, 2011 29 Obesity FIGURE 1.18A Adult Obesity Rates by Gender and Education Level, 1988–1994 and 2007–2010 FIGURE 1.18B Childhood Obesity Rates by Gender and Highest Education Level in the Household, 1988–1994 and 2007–2010 For detailed data, see: trends.collegeboard.org. EDUCATION PAYS 2013 3 Contents — Continued Other Individual and Societal Benefits 30 Parents and Children FIGURE 1.19A Time Mothers Spend on Children, by Employment Status and Education Level, 2003–2012 FIGURE 1.19B Time Mothers Spend on Children, by Type of Activity, Age of Youngest Child, Mother’s Employment Status and Education Level, 2003–2012 31 Civic Involvement FIGURE 1.20A Understanding of Political Issues by Education Level, 2012 FIGURE 1.20B Rates of Volunteering by Education Level, 2012 32 Voting FIGURE 1.21A Voting Rates by Age and Education Level, 2010 and 2012 FIGURE 1.21B Voting Patterns by Age and Education Level, 2012 33 Part 2: The Distribution of the Benefits: Who Participates and Succeeds in Higher Education? College Enrollment 34 College Enrollment FIGURE 2.1 Enrollment Rates by Family Income, 1987–2012 by Income 35 College Enrollment by FIGURE 2.2A Enrollment Rates of Recent High School Graduates by Race/Ethnicity, Race/Ethnicity 1974–2011 FIGURE 2.2B Enrollment Rates of All 18- to 24-Year-Olds by Race/Ethnicity, 1974–2011 36 College Enrollment by FIGURE 2.3A Enrollment Rates of Recent High School Graduates and of All 18- to Gender and Age 24-Year-Olds by Gender, 1971–2011 FIGURE 2.3B Enrollment Rates of All 18- to 34-Year-Olds by Age, 1971–2011 37 Stratification Within FIGURE 2.4A Family Income by Postsecondary Sector, 2011-12 Higher Education FIGURE 2.4B Postsecondary Sector by Family Income, 2011-12 38 Stratification Within FIGURE 2.5 Percentage of High School Seniors Academically Undermatched by Higher Education Socioeconomic Status, 2004 Educational Attainment 39 Degrees and FIGURE 2.6A Postsecondary Degrees and Certificates Awarded, 2011-12 Certificates Awarded FIGURE 2.6B Degrees and Certificates Awarded by Sector, 2011-12 FIGURE 2.6C Number of Certificates Awarded by Type, 2001-02 and 2011-12 40 College Completion FIGURE 2.7A Postsecondary Completion for Students Beginning Postsecondary Study in 2006 FIGURE 2.7B Postsecondary Completion by Dependency Status and Family Income, 1989-90, 1995-96, and 2003-04 41 Educational Attainment FIGURE 2.8A Educational Attainment over Time, 1940–2012 Over Time FIGURE 2.8B Educational Attainment by Age Group, 2002 and 2012 42 Educational Attainment by FIGURE 2.9 Educational Attainment by Race/Ethnicity and Gender, 1973–2012 Race/Ethicity and Gender 43 Science, Technology, FIGURE 2.10A Beginning Four-Year College Students Who Earned Bachelor’s Degrees, Engineering, or Mathematics Percentage Persisting in the Fields They Entered (STEM) Fields FIGURE 2.10B High School Graduates Entering Four-Year Colleges, Graduating in STEM Fields, and Employed in STEM Fields FIGURE 2.10C Majors of Bachelor’s Degree Recipients by Occupation, 2009 Geographic Comparisons 44 College Enrollment and FIGURE 2.11 Educational Attainment by State Attainment by State 45 International Comparisons: FIGURE 2.12 International Expenditures on Higher Education Institutions from Public, Public Spending on Household, and Other Private Sources, 2010 Higher Education 46 References 4 EDUCATION PAYS 2013 Executive Summary Education Pays 2013: The Benefits of Higher Education for from 54% ($15,200) for 25- to 29-year-olds to 86% ($32,000) Individuals and Society documents differences in the earnings for 45- to 49-year-olds (Figure 1.7A). and employment patterns of U.S. adults with different levels of – The 2012 unemployment rate for four-year college graduates education. It also compares health-related behaviors, reliance ages 25 to 34 was 7.1 percentage points below that for high on public assistance programs, civic participation, and indicators school graduates. The unemployment rates for those with of the well-being of the next generation. Financial benefits are associate degrees and with some college but no degree easier to document than nonpecuniary benefits, but the latter were 4.0 and 1.6 percentage points below that for high school may be as important to students themselves, as well as to the graduates, respectively (Figure 1.9B). society in which they participate. Our goal is to call attention to ways in which both individuals and society as a whole benefit The financial return associated with college from increased levels of education. credentials and the gaps in earnings by education level have increased over time. Our focus is on outcomes correlated with levels of educational attainment, and it is important to be cautious about attributing – Between 2008 and 2011, the gap between the median all of the differences observed to causation. However, reliable earnings of high school graduates ages 25 to 34 and those statistical analyses support the significant role of postsecondary in the same age range with a bachelor’s degree or higher education in generating the benefits reported. declined from 74% to 69% for men and from 79% to 70% for women, but the long-term trend is upward (Figure 1.6). Many of the averages we report conceal considerable variation among people with similar levels of education. More information on – The difference between median earnings for women ages 25 this variation can be found in this report’s companion publication, to 34 working full time year-round with a bachelor’s degree How College Shapes Lives: Understanding the Issues. or higher and those in the same age range with high school diplomas rose from 43% in 1971 to 56% in 1991 and to 70% Education Pays 2013 also examines the increases and the in 2011. The earnings premium for men rose from 25% in 1971 persistent disparities across demographic groups in college to 56% and in 1991 and to 69% in 2011 (Figure 1.6). participation and completion. The magnitude of the benefits of postsecondary education makes ensuring improved access for Federal, state, and local governments enjoy all who can benefit imperative. increased tax revenues from college graduates and spend less on income support programs This executive summary highlights key ideas in the report. for them, providing a direct financial return on THE BENEFITS OF HIGHER EDUCATION investments in postsecondary education. – In 2011, 12% of high school graduates ages 25 and older lived Individuals with higher levels of education in households that relied on SNAP (Supplemental Nutritional earn more and are more likely than others to Assistance Program) benefits, compared to just 2% of those be employed. with at least a bachelor’s degree. The pattern was similar for the National School Lunch Program (Figure 1.15). – Median earnings of bachelor’s degree recipients with no advanced degree working full time in 2011 were $56,500, College-educated adults are more likely $21,100 more than median earnings of high school graduates. than others to receive health insurance and Individuals with some college but no degree earned 14% pension benefits from their employers. more than high school graduates working full time. Their median after-tax earnings were 13% higher (Figure 1.1). – In 2011, employers provided pension plans to 52% of full- – Compared to a high school graduate, the median four-year time workers with high school diplomas, 65% of those with college graduate who enrolls at age 18 and graduates in four bachelor’s degrees, and 73% of those with advanced degrees years can expect to earn enough by age 36 to compensate (Figure 1.12A). for being out of the labor force for four years, as well as for – In 2011, employers provided health insurance to 55% of full- borrowing the full amount required to pay tuition and fees time workers with high school diplomas, 69% of those with without any grant assistance (Figure 1.3). bachelor’s degrees, and 73% of those with advanced degrees – Although 16% of male high school graduates earned as much (Figure 1.13A). as or more than the median earnings of male four-year college Adults with higher levels of education are graduates in 2011 ($66,200), 84% earned less (Figure 1.5). more active citizens than others. – As workers age, earnings rise more rapidly for those with higher levels of education. For example, the gap between – In 2012, 42% of four-year college graduates, 29% of adults the earnings of full-time workers whose highest degree is a with some college or an associate degree, and 17% of high bachelor’s degree and those of high school graduates grows school graduates volunteered for organizations (Figure 1.20B). For detailed data, see: trends.collegeboard.org. EDUCATION PAYS 2013 5 – Among adults ages 45 to 64, 59% of high school graduates – The gaps between the college enrollment rates of black and 80% of bachelor’s degree recipients voted in the 2012 and Hispanic high school graduates and white high school election (Figure 1.21A). graduates narrowed considerably between 2001 and 2011, when 70% of white, 66% of black, and 62% of Hispanic College education leads to healthier lifestyles, high school graduates enrolled in college within a year of reducing health care costs. completing high school (Figure 2.2A). – The gap between the smoking rates of four-year college – Thirty-eight percent of dependent undergraduate students graduates and high school graduates increased from 2 from families with incomes below $29,600 enrolled in public percentage points in 1962 to 13 points in 1982, and to 17 two-year colleges in 2011-12, and 10% enrolled in for-profit points in 2012 (Figure 1.16A). institutions. In contrast, 22% of undergraduate students from families with incomes of $106,360 or higher enrolled in public – Within each age group, college-educated adults are less two-year colleges, and 2% attended for-profit institutions likely than others to be obese. In addition, children living in (Figure 2.4B). households with more educated parents are less likely than other children to be obese (Figures 1.18A and 1.18B). – Enrolling at institutions that are less selective than those for which students are academically qualified is most common College-educated mothers spend more time among those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Most with children and alter the composition of of this enrollment pattern is explained by where students that time to suit children’s developmental apply rather than by admission decisions (Figure 2.5). needs more than less educated mothers. – In 2007-08, the percentage of young people enrolling in college within a year after they were scheduled to graduate – Among both those who are employed and those who are from high school ranged from 29% in Nevada and 30% in not, the amount of time mothers spend on their children’s the District of Columbia to 61% in Massachusetts and South activities increases with levels of education (Figure 1.19A). Dakota (Figure 2.11). College education increases the chances that Educational attainment rates are increasing, adults will move up the socioeconomic ladder. but college completion rates and attainment – Of adults who grew up in the middle family income quintile, patterns differ considerably across 31% of those with a four-year college degree moved up to the demographic groups. top income quintile between 2000 and 2008, compared with just 12% of those without a four-year college degree (Figure 1.11). – Among students who began college in 2006 at the age of 24 or younger and enrolled exclusively full time, 78% had earned Substantial evidence indicates that the a degree or certificate six years later (Figure 2.7A). associations described above are the result of – The percentage of adults in the U.S. between the ages of 25 increased educational attainment, not just of and 34 with a four-year college degree grew from 6% in 1950 individual characteristics. to 24% in 1980 and 1990. In 2012, 34% of adults in this age group had earned a bachelor’s degree or higher (Figure 2.8A). PARTICIPATION AND SUCCESS IN – In 2012, the percentage of 25- to 29-year-olds with at least HIGHER EDUCATION a bachelor’s degree ranged from 11% for Hispanic males to 43% for white non-Hispanic women (Figure 2.9). Although college enrollment rates continue to rise, large gaps in enrollment rates and Postsecondary education relies more on patterns persist across demographic groups. private funding in the U.S. than in most other developed countries. – The college enrollment rate of high school graduates from the lowest family-income quintile increased from 42% in 1992 to – In 2010, the percentage of expenditures on higher education 50% in 2002, and to 52% in 2012. The rate for middle-income coming from public as opposed to private sources ranged students increased from 53% to 55% to 65% over these from 22% in Chile and 25% in the United Kingdom, to 96% decades, while 78% of the highest-income high school in Finland and Norway. In the United States, 36% of funding graduates enrolled in college in 1992 and in 2002, and 82% was public, 48% came from households, and 16% was from enrolled in 2012 (Figure 2.1). other private sources (Figure 2.12). 6 EDUCATION PAYS 2013 Introduction As we emerge from the Great Recession, it is increasingly clear Lives: Understanding the Issues. This study examines the that our postsecondary education system and the economic variation in postsecondary outcomes, as well as the ambiguity and social context supporting it must evolve if we are to take involved in measuring those outcomes. Education Pays includes best advantage of our human and physical resources. While some information on the variation in earnings among individuals the developing recovery has improved life for many Americans, with similar levels of education (Figure 1.5), the impact of those at the top are benefiting most. The gaps between those the length of time it takes to earn a degree (Figure 1.3), and who grow up in privilege and those who do not continue to completion rates for those who begin college (Figure 2.7); widen. Too many young people are struggling to find their however, it does not go into depth on these issues or provide places in the adult world. much insight into growing concerns about the uncertainty involved in individual decisions about postsecondary education. A college education does not carry a guarantee of a good life Taken together, the two publications should provide readers or even of financial security. But the evidence is overwhelming with a greater understanding of the importance of investments that for most people, education beyond high school is a in postsecondary education. prerequisite for a secure lifestyle and significantly improves the probabilities of employment and a stable career with a positive Not all investments in education pay off equally well. Well-designed earnings trajectory. It also provides tools that help people to live policies and strong support for individual decision-making in a healthier and more satisfying lives, to participate actively in civil complex environment have the potential to make our society society, and to create opportunities for their children. both more equitable and more productive. We should focus not only on providing more education but also on providing the The word “college” has come to mean many different things. opportunities that will best serve the varied needs, preferences, It includes universities with ivy-covered walls and small seminar and circumstances of the population. classes, offering bachelor’s and graduate degrees. But it also includes public and private for-profit institutions specializing in Like the College Board’s Trends in College Pricing and Trends short-term training for specific occupations. College students in Student Aid reports, Education Pays collects and reports may be 18-year-olds straight out of high school or they may be data. Some of the benefits of higher education documented adults seeking new labor-market skills in the middle of their in this report are widely cited; others are less well known. We work lives. bring publicly available government statistics together with less familiar academic research in order to paint a detailed THE EDUCATION PAYS REPORT and integrated picture of the benefits of higher education and how they are distributed. Where possible, we have Education Pays 2013 contains data on the financial and summarized complex analyses in a manner consistent with the nonfinancial benefits of postsecondary education, broadly straightforward presentation style of this report. We provide defined. Part 1 provides up-to-date information about earnings, references to more in-depth and sophisticated analyses so that employment and unemployment patterns, and nonwage readers can pursue issues of particular interest. attributes associated with the jobs held by people with different levels of education. Because many of the changes Education Pays is intended as a resource and a reference for that education engenders in people’s lives are outside of their anyone interested in understanding the value of investments work lives, we report on health and lifestyle patterns as well. in higher education and how different groups in society benefit from those investments. Readers will draw their own Much of the information in this report pertains to the benefits inferences about the public policies most consistent with the that accrue to society as a whole when more people are evidence provided. college-educated, including increases in tax revenues and reductions in public expenditures. Other differences associated THE PAYOFF OF HIGHER EDUCATION with postsecondary education, such as frequencies of smoking, obesity, voting, volunteering, and participating in educational The latest income data available for most of the indicators in activities with children also have a significant impact not only on Education Pays 2013 are for 2011. In the three years since we individuals, but also on the fiscal and social strength of our nation. reported on 2008 income in Education Pays 2010, the gap between the median earnings of high school graduates ages The second part of Education Pays focuses on participation and 25 to 34 and those in the same age group with a bachelor’s success rates in postsecondary education, with an emphasis degree or higher declined from 74% to 69% for men and from on differences among demographic groups. This year, we are 79% to 70% for women. The earnings gap grows as workers introducing a new companion publication, How College Shapes age and move further along their career paths, but discussions For detailed data, see: trends.collegeboard.org. EDUCATION PAYS 2013 7 frequently focus on recent college graduates, particularly when common, even for college graduates. But the data show large the economy is weak. The increasing number of students differences associated with level of education. Figure 1.9A who face difficulty repaying their student loans provides some shows that the unemployment rate for college graduates fell justification for this perspective. But the evidence still strongly from its peak of 4.7% in 2010 to 4.0% in 2012, but it remained supports the conclusion that the long-term benefits of investing 2 percentage points higher than the 2007 level of 2.0%. in postsecondary education exceed the costs, not just for However, the unemployment rate for high school graduates, society but also for the individual students who are bearing an which fell from its peak of 10.3% in 2010 to 8.3% in 2012, was increasing portion of the cost of their own education. almost 4 percentage points higher than its 2007 level of 4.4%. The long-term upward trend in the earnings premium for It is important that we not allow the financial returns to college college graduates has led to a focus on that growth. But the to obscure the other benefits of a college education. Paying premium does not have to keep growing for the investment for college requires too large of an expenditure to ignore the to be a good one. According to Greenstone and Looney (2011) expected earnings on the other side, but we would lose a of the Brookings Institution’s Hamilton Project, “On average, tremendous amount as a society if each individual set as his or the benefits of a four-year college degree are equivalent to an her life goal maximizing lifetime income. College means many investment that returns 15.2 percent per year. This is more than different things to people — partly depending on the stage of double the average return to stock market investments since life at which they enroll, the type of institution they attend, the 1950, and more than five times the returns to corporate bonds, subjects they choose to study, whether they enroll full time gold, long-term government bonds, or home ownership. From or part time, and whether they are residential or commuter any investment perspective, college is a great deal.” students. But as the data in Education Pays indicate, overall behavior patterns and attitudes differ considerably by level of Our calculation in Figure 1.3 compares the median cumulative education. The knowledge, fulfillment, self-awareness, and earnings of high school graduates to those of college graduates broadening of horizons associated with education transform the and finds that by about age 36, higher earnings compensate not lives of students and of those with whom they live and work. only for four years out of the labor force, but also for average tuition and fee payments at a four-year university funded fully Postsecondary education should pay off well enough for people by student loans at 6.8% interest. The cumulative earnings of to pay back their loans and not suffer a diminished standard of associate degree recipients reach this point when graduates living. But the personal growth, increased understanding of the are about 34. Modifying the assumptions underlying these world, and wider range of options available to college-educated calculations by, for example, increasing the assumed time adults deserve our attention. Our society would become spent in school, allowing for paid work while in school, or taking immeasurably poorer if financial pressures were to lead us to grant aid into consideration will lengthen or shorten the time think of higher education as synonymous with job training. required to make up the investment. But the key point is that for the typical student, the investment pays off very well over The fact is that the typical college graduate is considerably the course of a lifetime — even considering the expense. more likely than the typical high school graduate to have a job, and that job is likely to pay significantly more than the Anecdotes about individual students whose paths through average earnings of high school graduates. The data may not postsecondary education have not worked out well do not be as colorful as the anecdotes we see so often in the press, contradict the fact that on average and for most students, but they tell a more realistic story. They also allow for a better college is an excellent financial investment. Benson, Esteva, understanding of which students and which circumstances are and Levy (2013) find that even after accounting for actual most likely to create the stories of the outliers who attract so time to degree, the probability of enrolling in college but not much attention. completing a degree, and the higher taxes paid by those with COLLEGE COMPLETION higher levels of education, the average rate of return to college remains high. They explain that this reality is not incompatible Some of the doubts about the benefits of higher education arise with the perception that more former students are facing from the fact that increasing college enrollment rates over time for difficulties repaying their loans. This issue has gained attention all demographic groups have been accompanied by persistently low because of a combination of rising tuition and debt levels with degree-completion rates. Not well known is that over three-quarters increasing variation in the earnings of college graduates. of students who begin college at age 24 or younger and enroll exclusively full time earn a degree or certificate within six years In addition to the variation in earnings characterizing the weak (Figure 2.7A). Moreover, the overall graduation rates for first-time economy in recent years, unemployment has become more full-time students are actually rising slowly. 8 EDUCATION PAYS 2013 Still, too many people begin college, invest both time and confuse the idea of increasing postsecondary participation money, and never earn a credential. The gaps in completion and attainment with the idea that almost everyone should rates by family income level, age, and enrollment intensity earn a bachelor’s degree are misleading. There are many are large. We also know that there is considerable variation postsecondary options. Students need better guidance in completion rates across types of institutions and among about which options to pursue. With that guidance, for most individual institutions with similar student bodies. Unfortunately, individuals the choice with the best long-run outcomes will these very real problems have led some observers to the involve some form of postsecondary study. unwarranted conclusion that people who do not have strong INTERPRETING THE EVIDENCE academic preparation, who do not have the required financial resources, or who are unfamiliar with the expectations and Many of the graphs in this report compare the experiences of requirements of colleges and universities should not pursue people with different education levels. In general, while simple postsecondary education. descriptions of correlations provide useful clues, they do not reliably determine causation or measure the exact size of the Research, however, tells us otherwise. Numerous economic effects. They are best interpreted as providing broadly-gauged analyses indicate that students who, because of their evidence of the powerful role that higher education plays in the demographic characteristics and academic experiences, lives of individuals and in society. That said, a growing body of hesitate to go to college stand to benefit the most from a evidence points to the direct impact of higher education not postsecondary degree (Card, 2001; Brand & Xie, 2010; Hout, only on specific job-related skills, but also on the attitudes and 2012). This finding does not imply that individuals on the margin behavior patterns of students. Education enables people to of college attendance will end up earning more than those better adapt to change. It also makes them more likely to take who knew from an early age that they would attend college. responsibility for their health and for the society in which they It means that the incremental gain in their earnings resulting live, and to parent in ways that improve the prospects for their from a college education may be larger. It is relatively rare for own children. young people whose parents are affluent — or even middle- class — college graduates to skip college altogether. For them, The evidence is overwhelming that higher education going to college and earning a bachelor’s degree is the “default improves people’s lives, makes our economy more efficient, option.” Those who choose not to enroll usually have actively and contributes to a more equitable society. As Figure 1.11 considered and rejected the idea. But for too many low-income illustrates, postsecondary education is key to the ability of adults and first-generation students, financial and logistical barriers to rise above the socioeconomic status of their parents. Without loom so large that the possibility of going to college never a college education, those born into the lower economic rungs seems realistic. Many of these students would likely benefit are likely to stay there. from appropriate postsecondary educational opportunities. Narrowing the gaps in college participation and success across First-generation students and those from low-income income groups is vital to our future as a nation. Different paths backgrounds frequently lack the information needed to make are appropriate for different individuals, and our challenge is to the best choices when they do enroll in college. As the data make the most promising paths readily available to students in Part 2 of Education Pays reveal, many students enroll in from all backgrounds. Money alone cannot solve this problem. colleges that are less selective and less challenging than As inequality in the distribution of resources in our society those to which they would likely be admitted based on their increases over time, the hurdles facing disadvantaged children academic qualifications. Numerous studies have shown that grow in relative terms. Our education system must do better at this enrollment pattern significantly decreases the probability helping them to overcome these hurdles. of graduating. The tables supporting all of the graphs in this report, a As Figure 2.6A indicates, over 40% of the undergraduate PDF version of the report, and a PowerPoint file containing credentials awarded in 2011-12 were certificates or associate individual slides for all of the graphs are available on our degrees. Some people who begin bachelor’s degrees and website at trends.collegeboard.org. Please feel free to cite or end up leaving school without a credential might have been reproduce the data in this report for noncommercial purposes better served by enrolling in a shorter program; on the other with proper attribution. hand, many who enroll in shorter programs diminish their chances of ever earning a four-year degree. Arguments that For detailed data, see: trends.collegeboard.org. EDUCATION PAYS 2013 9 Part 1: Individual and Societal Benefits of Higher Education The benefits of investments in higher education are shared by Society as a whole also enjoys a financial return on the individual students and the societies of which they are a part. investment in higher education. In addition to widespread Individuals with college degrees, and to a lesser extent those productivity increases, the higher earnings of educated who have some college experience but do not have a degree, workers generate higher tax payments at the local, state, and earn more than others and enjoy better working conditions. federal levels. Four-year college graduates pay, on average, They contribute more to society, both through higher tax 78% more in taxes each year than high school graduates, payments and through their civic involvement. College- and for those who continued on to earn a professional educated adults also give their children benefits that increase degree, average tax payments are more than three and a the prospects that the next generation will prosper and will be half times as high as those paid by high school graduates. in a position to contribute to society in a variety of ways. Spending on social support programs such as unemployment compensation, SNAP, and Medicaid is much lower for The indicators in Part 1 of Education Pays document the individuals with higher levels of education. financial benefits of college participation and success and other ways in which higher education improves the lives of adults and While the pages in this section report relationships between their communities. education and outcomes and not measures of causation, a large body of reliable research provides evidence that Earnings are too often emphasized as the primary benefit of most of the differences in outcomes are, in fact, the result higher education, and may overshadow other outcomes that of individuals’ education. The evidence is compelling that could well be as important. Nonetheless, the price of college postsecondary education not only provides valued credentials makes an understanding of the financial benefits critical, and but also increases skills and knowledge and changes the way several of the following pages focus on earnings differences people approach their lives. corresponding to levels of educational attainment. During their working lives, college graduates earn, on average, about 65% Beyond the economic return to individuals and to society as more than high school graduates, and those with advanced a whole, higher education improves quality of life in a variety degrees earn two to three times as much as high school of ways, only some of which can be easily quantified. High graduates. The earnings premium increases as workers move levels of labor force participation, employment, and earnings further along their career paths. increase the material well-being of individuals and the wealth of society, and also carry psychological benefits. Adults Salaries are not the only form of compensation correlated with with higher levels of education are more likely to engage in education level. For example, college graduates are more likely organized volunteer work, to understand political issues, and than other employees to enjoy employer-provided health and to vote. They are also more likely to live healthy lifestyles. The pension benefits. They are more likely to feel that they learn issue is not just that they earn more and have better access new things on their jobs and are somewhat more satisfied with to health care; college-educated adults smoke less, exercise their work than others. These findings do not mean that there more, and have lower obesity rates. These differences not are no exceptions to the rule. Some individuals make fortunes only affect the lifestyles and life expectancies of individuals despite little formal education, and some struggle financially, but also reduce medical costs for society as a whole. even with a college education. As Figure 1.5 illustrates, there is Mothers with higher levels of education spend more time considerable variation in earnings among people with the same on their children’s activities. In other words, participation in level of education. But the overall patterns are clear and dramatic postsecondary education improves the quality of civil society. — more education means increased opportunities. Although it requires the considerable investment of dollars, time, and effort, The pages in this section do not provide a comprehensive higher education measurably improves the lives of most who measure of the benefits of higher education. They do, however, participate and significantly increases the probability that adults provide an indication of the nature and extent of the return on will move up in the socioeconomic hierarchy. our investment in educational opportunities. 10 EDUCATION PAYS 2013 Part 1: Individual and Societal Benefits