Research Report No. 2005-1 A Survey to Evaluate the Alignment of the New SAT® Writing and Critical Reading Sections to Curricula and Instructional Practices Glenn B. Milewski, Daniel Johnsen, Nancy Glazer, and Melvin Kubota www.collegeboard.com College Board Research Report No. 2005-1 ETS RR-05-07 A Survey to Evaluate the Alignment of the New SAT Writing ® and Critical Reading Sections to Curricula and Instructional Practices Glenn B. Milewski, Daniel Johnsen, Nancy Glazer, and Melvin Kubota College Entrance Examination Board, New York, 2005 Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Mary Fowles, Don Powers, and Viji Sathy for their helpful comments on a previous version of this paper. The first author would like to thank Photo Anagnostopoulos, Wayne Camara, and Marlene Dunham for their help implementing the survey. Glenn B. Milewski is an associate research scientist at the College Board. Daniel Johnsen is an assessment specialist at ETS. Nancy Glazer is an assessment specialist at ETS. Melvin Kubota is an assessment specialist at ETS. Researchers are encouraged to freely express their professional judgment. Therefore, points of view or opinions stated in College Board Reports do not necessarily represent official College Board position or policy. The College Board: Connecting Students to College Success The College Board is a not-for-profit membership association whose mission is to connect students to college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, the association is composed of more than 4,700 schools, colleges, universities, and other educational organizations. Each year, the College Board serves over three and a half million students and their parents, 23,000 high schools, and 3,500 colleges through major programs and services in college admissions, guidance, assessment, financial aid, enrollment, and teaching and learning. 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Contents Student Proficiency in Reading and Writing. . . .22 Test Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Types of Writing Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Limitations and Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Objective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 SAT® Critical Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Sentence Completions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Appendix A: Sample SAT Items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Passage-Based Reading Questions. . . . . . . . . . .1 Appendix B: Essay Scoring Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 SAT Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Tables 1. Background Information for Survey Improving Sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Identifying Sentence Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 2. High School Teacher Survey Respondent Ratings of Class Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Improving Paragraphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 3. Differences in Rankings for Reading Skills that Have Discrepant Importance and The Essay Prompt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Coverage Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4. Teacher Ratings of Student Proficiency Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 in Reading and Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 5. Percent of Teachers Who Assign Specific Types of Reading and Writing Assignments. . . 14 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 6. Frequency of Reading and Writing Assignments. .15 Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 7. Alignment Between Reading Skills and SAT Critical Reading Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 8. Alignment Between Writing Process Skills and SAT Writing Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Part I: Focus on Reading and Writing Skills. . . . .6 9. Elements of an Essay with the Highest Score and Corresponding Writing Process Skills Part II: Student Proficiency in Reading and with Teacher Ratings of Importance . . . . . . . . . 20 Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 10. Alignment Between Grammar, Usage, and Part III: Tests, Quizzes, and Assignments. . . . . . .9 Sentence Structure Skills and Problems Tested by SAT Writing Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Part IV: Open-Ended Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Figures Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 1. Average importance ratings on reading skills . . 7 Alignment of the New SAT to Curricula and 2. Average coverage ratings on reading skills. . . . . 8 Instructional Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 3. Average importance ratings on writing process skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Critical Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 4. Average coverage ratings on writing process skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 5. Average importance ratings on grammar, usage, and sentence structure skills. . . . . . . . . . 12 6. Average coverage ratings on grammar, usage, and sentence structure skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 7. Test formats used in the classroom . . . . . . . . . . 15 Abstract Invitations to participate in the Web-based curriculum survey were sent to approximately 38,000 teachers. Market The current paper presents the results of a large-scale, Data Retrieval (MDR), a company that provides mailing national, reading and writing curriculum survey and lists for high school and college teachers, supplied the evaluates the alignment of the survey results to the reading mailing addresses. Because Web participation was low, a and writing skills measured by the new SAT®. It was paper version of the survey was created and distributed hypothesized that the skills measured by the writing and to teachers who participated in essay readings for the critical reading sections of the new SAT would be aligned College Board’s Advanced Placement Program® (AP®) to the curricula reflected in the survey responses. A strong Examinations in English Language and English Literature, alignment would provide important validity evidence for the and the SAT Subject Test in Writing. A total of 2,351 new SAT. A total of 2,351 high school and college teachers in teachers responded to the curriculum survey. the United States were asked about reading and writing skills, The current paper presents the results of the curriculum student proficiency in reading and writing, assignments, survey and discusses the alignment of the survey results to and background information. The results demonstrate a the skills measured by the new SAT. The paper focuses on strong link between the skills measured by the new SAT and the current state of English/language arts curricula and high school and college curricula and instructional practice. instructional practice rather than trends across surveys. Limitations and next steps are discussed. A detailed description of the writing and critical reading sections, along with sample new SAT questions, is provided in addition to the survey results. Introduction SAT® Critical Reading Objective Beginning in spring 2005, the verbal section of the SAT Reasoning Test™ will be renamed “critical reading” to In the spring of 2003, a survey of English and language arts reflect the increased emphasis that the new test will place teachers was undertaken by the College Board to better on reading skills. As part of this change in emphasis, understand reading and writing curricula in the United analogies, which had heretofore made up approximately States. The primary objective of the curriculum survey 24 percent of the verbal section, will be dropped from was to collect data from teachers about the frequency the test and will be replaced by questions based on short with which specific reading and writing skills were reading passages. Sentence completion questions will covered in the classroom and how important teachers felt continue to appear on the test, in approximately the same that these skills were for students entering their first year proportion (about 28 percent) as on the current test (24 of college. It was assumed that survey responses would be percent). Appendix A provides sample critical reading reflective of a general college-preparatory curriculum in questions for each item format. reading and writing. Since the purpose of the new SAT, a college admissions Sentence Completions test that measures student reasoning based on knowledge and skills developed by the student in school course work, In sentence completion questions, test-takers are presented is to reflect current curriculum and institutional practices with a sentence containing one or two blanks, each blank in high school and college, the current study was conducted indicating that a word is missing. Each answer choice to examine the nature and extent of the alignment between includes a word or set of words. Test-takers are asked to the tested skills and curricula. Although the test includes select the answer choice that contains the word or set of three sections—critical reading, writing, and math—the words that, when inserted in the sentence, best fits the survey focused entirely on writing and critical reading. meaning of the sentence as a whole. Sentence completion (A future survey will evaluate math curricula.) It was questions assess test-takers’ knowledge of the meanings of hypothesized that the skills measured by the writing and words, and their ability to understand how the different critical reading sections of the new SAT would be aligned parts of a sentence fit logically together. Approximately to the curricula reflected in the survey responses. It was 28 percent of critical reading questions are of this type acknowledged that, since multiple and interrelated skills (19 questions). are often brought to bear when test-takers respond to SAT questions, the match between the surveyed skills Passage-Based Reading Questions and the test content specifications1 would not necessarily Passage-based reading questions comprise approximately be demonstrated in simple one-to-one correspondences 72 percent of the questions in the critical reading section between survey skills and content specifications. of the new SAT (48 questions). These questions measure 1 Each SAT meets very precise specifications that function as a blueprint of all the dimensions of the test, including the skills assessed, difficulty level, statistical properties, content, and format. The following sections summarize the content specifications for the critical reading and writing sections of the new SAT. 1 test-takers’ ability to read and to think carefully about • Implication and evaluation questions go beyond the what they have read. Questions are based on reading passage by asking what the information presented in passages that range from 100 to 850 words and that are the passage suggests, or what can be inferred about the drawn from a variety of fields. Across the reading passages, author’s views. This type of question might also ask the there is a balance of content from the humanities, social test-taker to evaluate ideas or assumptions in a passage, studies, natural sciences, and literary fiction. As with or to evaluate the relationship between a pair of passages. previous versions of the SAT, each test will include four • Tone and attitude questions ask about the author’s “long” reading passages (400–850 words), one of which tone or attitude in a specific part of a passage or in is comprised of a pair of related passages. Beginning in the passage as a whole. They might also ask about the 2005, the SAT will also include questions based upon tone or attitude of a person quoted in a passage, or of a short passages. These passages will be approximately 100 character in a fiction passage. words long, and each will be followed by two questions • Application and analogy questions may address a based on what is stated or implied in the passage. Each specific idea or relationship in a passage and ask the test will also contain a pair of short readings—two test-taker to recognize a parallel idea or relationship paragraphs on the same or a related topic—followed by in a different context. They may ask the test-taker to approximately four questions based on these passages. recognize an additional example that would support an Most or all of these questions will ask test-takers to idea presented in the passage, or they may ask about an understand the relationship between the two passages, analogy that is presented in the passage. Alternatively, or to synthesize ideas presented in the two passages. these questions may ask how ideas presented in one The questions following the short passages will resemble passage apply to another passage, or how the author the current passage-based reading questions, which fall of one passage would be likely to react to an idea into three general categories: literal comprehension, expressed in a related passage. (It is important to vocabulary in context, and extended reasoning. note that, even though analogies have been dropped, Literal comprehension questions focus on a small but the SAT will continue to have passage-based reading significant portion of a reading passage and ask what is questions that measure analogical reasoning.) being said in those lines. Approximately 8–12 percent of the passage-based reading questions fall into this Each test will also include a number of “bridging” category. Vocabulary-in-context questions focus on the questions (questions that ask test-takers to make way a specific word is used in a reading passage. The five connections between a pair of reading passages). Prior to answer choices include possible meanings of the word; spring 2005, tests always included one long pair (between test-takers are asked to select the one with the meaning 400 and 850 words total), and at least 25 percent of the that is closest to the way the word is used in the passage. questions following this pair were bridging. Beginning Approximately 8–12 percent of the passage-based reading in spring 2005, each test will include a short pair in questions will be of this type. addition to the long pair, and at least 50 percent of the Extended reasoning questions comprise the bulk total questions based on the two pairs will be bridging. of the passage-based reading questions on any given Bridging questions can fall into any of the reasoning test. Approximately 75–83 percent of the passage-based subcategories described above. reading questions will be of this type. These questions are Finally, there will be a change to the content areas from spread across a number of subcategories: primary purpose, which reading passages are drawn. In the past, the test rhetorical strategies, implication and evaluation, tone and included one passage from each of the following areas: attitude, application and analogy, and “other.” natural sciences, social studies, humanities, and narrative. • Primary purpose questions ask about the main idea The first three of these will continue to appear on the test. of a passage or about the author’s primary purpose The fourth, narrative, which had encompassed excerpts in writing the passage. They address the passage as a from fiction as well as nonfiction, will be replaced beginning whole or an entire paragraph, rather than focusing on in spring 2005 by a “literary fiction” category. This change is a smaller part of the passage. intended to bring the test closer to the kinds of reading done in high school and in the first year of college. • Rhetorical strategies questions usually focus on a specific part of a passage, often on a particular word, SAT Writing image, phrase, example, or quotation. They usually ask why this particular element is present or what The new SAT will contain sections that measure skills purpose it serves, rather than simply what it means. and abilities in writing gradually developed over Rhetorical strategies questions might also focus on a many years through extensive experience with written more substantial portion of a passage and ask what English. The writing section of the SAT will contain purpose it serves in the passage as a whole. three types of multiple-choice questions—improving 2 sentences, identifying sentence errors, and improving Improving Paragraphs paragraphs—as well as one 25-minute essay question. This question type measures the student’s ability to The multiple-choice writing questions on the new SAT edit and revise sentences in the context of a paragraph will cover grammar, usage, sentence structure, and or entire essay, organize and develop paragraphs paragraph organization and coherence but will not test in a coherent and logical manner, and apply the spelling or capitalization. In some questions, punctuation conventions of standard written English. Test-takers marks such as the comma and semicolon are important read a draft essay of approximately 200 words that in arriving at the correct answer, but these questions contains a variety of writing issues at the sentence and primarily test the structure in which the punctuation paragraph level—including coherence, organization, appears. Appendix A provides sample writing multiple- supporting examples, sentence structure, as well as choice and essay questions. grammar and usage—and answer questions about how to edit and revise portions of it. Each sentence is Improving Sentences numbered for easy reference. The improving sentences type of question measures the Improving paragraphs questions assess the test- student’s ability to recognize and correct faults in usage taker’s ability to recognize revisions of the kinds of larger and sentence structure as well as to recognize effective writing problems that appear on the paragraph level sentences that follow the conventions of standard written and therefore cover skills related to editing and revising English. Test-takers are presented with sentences in which drafts. These questions guide test-takers through the some portion or the entire sentence has been underlined. editing and revision of a brief passage, addressing such They must then choose which of five lettered choices matters as revising sentences for clarity and grammatical produces the best sentence. If the given sentence is correct, correctness, organization, consistency in style, and they select choice (A), which is identical to the underlined transitions among paragraphs. They can also ask test- portion. This type of question assesses the student’s ability takers to analyze the effects achieved by certain phrases to recognize grammatically incorrect or poorly formed, or composition strategies. Approximately 12 percent of wordy, ambiguous, or otherwise imprecise phrases and the writing multiple-choice questions will be of this type clauses and to identify the revision that best corrects a writing (6 questions). problem. Improving sentences questions focus on issues related to sentence structure, including sentence boundary The Essay Prompt errors (comma splice, run-on), illogical comparison, lack The essay measures the test-taker’s ability to develop a of logical agreement, parallelism, misplaced and dangling point of view on an issue presented in an excerpt; use modifiers, and improper coordination and subordination, reasoning and evidence based on his or her reading, and sentence predication. Some improving sentences studies, experience, and observations to support that point questions cover points of grammar and usage also measured of view; and to follow the conventions of standard written by the identifying sentence errors type of questions. English. The essay therefore assesses the test-taker’s ability, Approximately 51 percent of the writing multiple-choice under timed conditions, to do the kind of writing required questions will be of this type (25 questions). in most college courses—writing that emphasizes precise use of language, logical presentation of ideas, development Identifying Sentence Errors of a point of view, and clarity of expression. In writing their This question type measures the test-taker’s ability to essays in response to the assigned prompts, test-takers recognize faults in usage and to recognize effective have the opportunity to employ the rhetorical approaches sentences that follow the conventions of standard written or modes of development—narrative, persuasive, English. Test-takers are presented with a sentence with argumentative, or expository—that best suit their writing four underlined portions. They must identify which one, style and purpose. if any, of the underlined portions contains an error in See Appendix B for a brief description of the Essay usage that can be corrected within the underline so as Scoring Guide. to make the entire sentence acceptable. If none of the underlined choices are incorrect, they select (E) “no error.” In answering these questions, test-takers are in Method effect applying their knowledge of grammar and usage to specific instances of language use. Test-takers are not The following sections describe the methodology that was required, as they are with improving sentences questions, used to implement the curriculum survey. Information is to recognize the revisions that would correct the errors. presented about the sample that participated in the survey, Approximately 37 percent of the writing multiple-choice the content included in the survey, and the procedure that questions will be of this type (18 questions). was used to administer the survey. 3 Participants Table 1 A total of 2,351 teachers responded to the curriculum Background Information for Survey Respondents survey (1,531 women and 787 men; 33 of the participants High School College did not indicate their gender). The participants included Background information Teachers Professors 814 (34.6 percent) college English professors, 230 (9.8 School percent) college humanities teachers, 393 (16.7 percent) Public 85.5% 48.6% high school chairpersons of English departments, and Private 12.9% 47.9% 914 (38.9 percent) high school English teachers. At both Other/no response 1.6% 3.5% the high school and college level, “English” teachers Geographic area included those who taught language arts, English, or composition classes. At the college level, “humanities” Urban 18.9% 34.4% professors included those who taught history, political Suburban 43.5% 32.8% science, psychology, or biology classes. While biology Rural 36.6% 29.9% professors are not traditionally considered humanities No response 0.9% 3.0% professors, they were included in this group because one Total enrollment: twelfth-grade students or two passages from each critical reading section cover Fewer than 100 19.1% — natural science content. Survey respondents provided background information 100 to 200 26.2% — about their teaching experience and education. One hundred 201 to 400 27.5% — and fifty-six (6.6 percent) of the participants reported that 401 to 750 16.7% — they had been teaching for fewer than five years; 366 (15.6 751 to 1,000 4.1% — percent) for five to 10 years; 287 (12.2 percent) for 11 to 15 More than 1,000 5.6% — years; 323 (13.7 percent) for 16 to 20 years; and 1,174 (49.9 No response 0.7% — percent) for more than 20 years; 45 (1.9 percent) participants Total enrollment: undergraduates did not indicate how long they had been teaching. Three hundred (12.8 percent) participants reported earning a Fewer than 1,000 — 12.4% bachelor’s degree; 1,325 (56.4 percent) participants reported 1,000 to 2,500 — 25.4% earning a master’s degree; and 678 (28.8 percent) reported 2,501 to 5,000 — 23.1% earning a doctorate; 47 (2.0 percent) participants did not 5,001 to 10,000 — 14.2% indicate their highest academic degree. When compared 10,001 to 20,000 — 13.0% to statistics reported by the National Center for Education More than 20,000 — 8.9% Statistics (NCES) (2003), the high school teachers in the No response — 3.1% current sample had more education and more experience than a national sample of high school teachers (see p. 81 of the NCES report). presents high school teacher ratings of class characteristics Table 1 combines all of the teachers into two separate such as (a) percent that attend college, (b) percent that groups (high school and college) and summarizes speak English as a second language, (c) percent that information about school type, location, and total belong to an ethnic minority group, and (d) percent that enrollment. Survey respondents also provided background qualify for a free or reduced-price lunch program. Table 2 information about their school. When compared to statistics shows that the high school teachers in the sample came reported by the National Center for Education Statistics from a diverse group of schools. (NCES) (2003), the current sample overrepresented College English professors were asked to only report the teachers from public high schools (see p. 97 of the NCES percentage of students in their class who speak English as a report) and underrepresented high school teachers from second language since the sociodemographic information large high schools (enrolling 1,000 or more students) (see described above was either inapplicable or could not be p. 101 of the NCES report). The 2005 College Handbook collected. Six hundred and fourteen college professors (College Board, 2004) showed that the current sample (75.4 percent) indicated that the percentage of students in overrepresented college professors from public institutions their class who have English as a second language ranged and underrepresented college professors from suburban from zero to 10; 115 (14.1 percent) reported percentages campuses. Despite the over- and underrepresentation, the from 11 to 25; 26 (1.5 percent) reported percentages from current sample can still be considered representative of high 26 to 50; 12 (1.4 percent) reported percentages from 51 to school and college faculty. 75; and 11 (1.4 percent) reported percentages from 76 to High school teachers provided additional 100. Thirty-six college English professors (4.4 percent) did sociodemographic information about their schools. Table 2 not respond to this question. 4 Table 2 High School Teacher Survey Respondent Ratings of Class Characteristics Belong to an ethnic minority Qualify for free or reduced-price Attend college English as a second language group lunch Rating n % n % n % n % 0–10% 21 1.6 1,034 79.1 723 55.3 419 32.1 11–25% 117 9.0 157 12.0 249 19.1 308 23.6 26–50% 297 22.7 65 5.0 158 12.1 299 22.9 51–75% 388 29.7 18 1.4 81 6.2 149 11.4 76–100% 449 34.4 15 1.1 80 6.1 73 5.6 No response 35 2.7 18 1.5 16 1.2 59 4.5 Materials inappropriate to the SAT (those related to speaking and listening skills, for example) were excluded. The resulting The curriculum survey was organized into five parts. reading skills list was reviewed and revised by researchers When responding to the curriculum survey, high school at both the College Board and Educational Testing Service, teachers were instructed to focus on the classes that and by the chair of the College Board SAT Reading they taught to college-bound juniors and/or seniors and Development Committee. college teachers were instructed to focus on the classes The list of writing skills on the survey, based on earlier that they taught to first-year undergraduates. writing curriculum surveys conducted by the College Part I asked which reading and writing skills teachers Board and Educational Testing Service in 1976 and 1991, focused on in the classroom. Seventy-three reading and was revised and updated after consultation with writing writing skills were presented in this section as closed-ended teachers, including members of the former College Board questions. For each question, teachers were asked to respond SAT Writing Subject Test Development Committee and the to two categories of ordered responses: (a) the frequency College Board SAT Writing Development Committee. The with which the skill was covered in the classroom, and (b) resulting writing skills list was also reviewed and revised the importance of the skill for students entering their first by researchers at the College Board and Educational year of college. The scale for coverage, in ascending order Testing Service. from one to three, was: not covered, some coverage, and The 1976 survey was based on responses to question- substantial coverage. The scale for importance, in ascending naires sent out in the fall of 1973 to English departments order from one to three, was: not important, somewhat at 196 four-year and 111 two-year colleges throughout important, and very important. There were 26 reading skills the United States, as part of general Educational Testing and 47 writing skills in this section. Reading skills were Service test development activities, in an attempt to find grouped within the following subheadings: working with out about English instruction in their schools and about fundamental aspects of text, using overall text to establish the kinds of tests they would find most useful (Donlon, meaning, using a text to analyze the ideas presented, 1984, pp. 70–71). The 1991 survey was based on a revision working with individual words, and working with words of the 1976 survey after consultation with Educational and related graphics. Writing skills were grouped within Testing Service research staff as well as members of the the following subheadings: writing process (i.e., purposes of College Board SAT Writing Subject Test Development writing, writing an essay, etc.) as well as grammar and usage, Committee (then called the SAT II: Writing Subject Test and sentence structure. The list of reading and writing skills Development Committee). Most of the changes had to was designed to include a broad range of skills of the sort do with the inclusion of questions related to the writ- likely to be emphasized in the classroom. ing process (prewriting, writing, revising, and editing), a The reading skills listed on the survey were developed process that was not widely known in 1976. by consulting the state standards for Arkansas, California, Part II of the survey addressed how teachers rated Florida, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, their students’ reading and writing proficiency. Eight areas Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Texas. Lists of skills and of reading and seven areas of writing were presented competencies from the Standards for Success Project, in this part of the survey. To indicate how well they the NCTE/International Reading Association, and the thought their students performed in each of these areas, University of California Academic Senate Statement of teachers were asked to select from the following descriptors: Competencies were also consulted. The skills that showed below average, satisfactory, above satisfactory, or advanced. up most consistently or that were, in some cases, shared by College professors indicated their students’ proficiency all were included on the survey. Skills that were obviously upon entrance to college and high school teachers indicated 5