NÚMERO MONOGRÁFICO El sistema educativo español: viejos problemas, nuevas miradas. Conmemoración de un bicentenario (1813-2013) María del Mar Pozo Andrés (coord.) Volumen 65 Número 4 2013 SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE PEDAGOGÍA CHEAP, SUITABLE, PROMISING: MONITORIAL SCHOOLING AND THE CHALLENGE OF MASS EDUCATION IN EARLY LIBERAL SPAIN (1808-1823) Económico, adecuado, prometedor: la enseñanza mutua y el desafío de la escolarización de masas en la España del liberalismo temprano (1808-1823) MARCELO CARUSO Humboldt University, Berlín DOI: 10.13042/Bordon.2013.65402 INTRODUCTION. The problem of establishing a modern inclusive system of education in Spain was not only one of large structures, but also one related to day-to-day operations in schools including didactics and methods. If liberals in Spain wanted to integrate a large section of the Spanish popula- tion into a school system, that system had to be conceived of as a mass system with an unprecedented reach within the schooling tradition of that country. In a context of financial scarcity, a rejection of pedagogical traditions, and a strong claim for more efficient techniques, the monitorial system of education from England became a new panacea for Spain. METHOD. With particular attention to the historiography of the reception of foreign educational models, this contribution presents historical evidence about this particular constellation of emergence of a national system of education in Spain. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. By analysing a sample of printed and archival historical sources concerning the early reception of this system of teaching up until 1823, this contribution shows the inescapable character monitorial instruction acquired in these years and points at the ideological fac- tors that led to this outcome. It shows that at the very beginning of the ‘national’ system of education, foreign elements were constitutive of the history of Spanish school system. Key words: Elementary teaching, Monitorial system of education, Liberalism, Reception, Class- room organization. Modern educational systems and premise that children, increasingly also wom- instructional practices en, need to experience institutional schooling for a certain period of time in order to become Modern educational systems are essentially full members of society. This basic inclusion inclusive systems. Their foundation rests on the of entire generations in institutional settings Fecha de recepción: 9-5-13 (cid:129) Fecha de aceptación: 25-7-13 Bordón 65 (4), 2013, 33-45, ISSN: 0210-5934 (cid:129) 33 Marcelo Caruso does not mean that educational equality is a establishing an inclusive modern educational constitutive objective of modern educational system. In the first section, I will describe how systems. In the view of sociology, the inclusion the quest for a cheap, suitable and efficient educational systems perform is not oriented system of elementary instruction had been cir- towards values —as in the case of the new dis- culating in Spain even before the disruption of cussion regarding “inclusion” for disabled chil- the old political order in 1808 began. I will then dren in regular schools. Inclusion refers rather briefly sketch the elites’ first positive reception of to the mechanism of enabling much needed this system of instruction from 1815 onwards, common experiences in the context of highly and, in a third section, the radicalization of these differentiated societies (Luhmann, 2002; Meyer possibilities during the heyday of transformative & Ramírez, 2000). liberalism up until 1823. I will advance the thesis that the monitorial system of education simul- When European and North American socie- taneously addressed different problems of the ties began to advance educational programmes Spanish educational institutions as perceived by built around this idea of a disciplining and contemporary actors. Due to this situation and acculturating form of inclusion for the whole additionally fuelled by the imperative of advanc- younger population at the end of the 18th ing a true modern educational system —despite century, an urgent question which arose was all its liberal shortcomings this primarily meant how to achieve such ambitious purposes with following a defined set of general norms— moni- the existing organizational and instructional torial schooling, a “foreign” system of instruc- means. The enormous task of schooling all had tion, became inescapable just when a “national” consequences, in the long run, for finances, system of education was being established. bureaucracy, families, teachers, school organi- zation, and teaching methods. The demands for transformation that schooling in a com- The sense of a “necessary” reform: prehensive educational system implied also the Spanish Enlightenment grappling became urgent questions when Spanish liberals with Spanish educational traditions wrote the educational paragraphs of the Cádiz Constitution. Initially “inoffensive” sentences Long before an inclusive system of schooling referring to a future with literate citizens, an became the flagship of early liberal forces, obligation to establish elementary schools in all Spanish enlightened circles had critically scru- villages, parliamentary regulation of the envi- tinized the inherited structures of elementary sioned educational system, and so on, had to schooling. The main features of elementary have enormous consequences on governance, schools, structures of schooling provision, the institutional, and instructional practices. lack of a modernizing agent in this field and even the pedagogical traditions were accused of This contribution deals with the irruption of defective education and insufficient disciplining the English system of mutual teaching, also (García Hurtado, 2005). Influential actors such known as the monitorial system of education, as Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744-1811) in Spain, as one major attempt at processing the published invectives against the current state new challenge of establishing a national system of affairs and reclaimed modernizing “plans” of education. Independently of its actual imple- for schooling (Cabarrús, 1808; Jovellanos, mentation, monitorial schooling —a system con- 1811/1831; Morales, 1789). They were part ceived in order to deliver basic instruction to a of a broader offensive against the established large number of children at a low cost and high powers in urban elementary schooling —the level of efficiency— became the panacea capable schoolteachers organized in guilds and their of responding to the self-defined challenge of ties to the municipal powers. Critics viewed 34 (cid:129) Bordón 65 (4), 2013, 33-45, ISSN: 0210-5934 Cheap, suitable, promising: monitorial schooling and the challenge of mass education in early liberal Spain these teachers as inefficient and unimaginative, a low cost became a recurring issue in many obsessed merely with the details of calligraphic cities after the expulsion of the Jesuits. For mastery. In fact, the focus of urban teachers on instance, the student Francisco Salas launched teaching writing, practiced in almost artisanal an experiment in teaching reading in Zaragoza one-to-one interactions, to the detriment of in 1781 that focused strongly on the organiza- school discipline problems and teaching read- tion of large classes. In his “Diary of the meth- ing persisted, and provided an opportunity for od”, the issue of efficiently teaching reading explicit alternatives (Ávila Fernández & Corts was closely related to the question of managing Giner, 1986; Ruiz Berrio, 2004). large classes by a combination of group instruc- tion and mutual instruction among students One of the main actors of this intended change (Salas, 1997). A lawyer who would remain was the court itself, where many projects expe- active in the field of education well until the rienced a new form of patronage. It was not 1830s, Domingo Bacas Rojo, initiated similar only problems related to morals, religion and experiments in Medina del Rioseco from 1805 social discipline which became an issue for onwards. His experiments explicitly addressed the enlightened elites in Madrid. Pedagogical the deficient efficacy of traditional teaching. He questions related to the day-to-day operations called the usual methods “barbarian”, produc- of schools, until then a largely neglected field ing only “dissonant cries” in the classroom and in the reform projects of the elites, became disorder. He also proposed modes of classifying matters of interest. The well-known attempts children and putting some of them to work as at modernizing elementary teaching in the helpers in the classroom. This would also be schools by re-organizing the traditional guilds a central mechanism in rendering schooling of the schoolteachers in Madrid and in the compatible with the disciplining possibilities main towns were a central part of this reform of teaching large groups (Bacas Roxo, 1820: strategy. The struggles for pedagogic ascend- 40-46). In sum, in many Spanish towns the ancy that two groups of teachers and patrons same uneasiness with inherited practice result- fought in Madrid between 1780 and 1805 are ed in local experiments that were mostly in line a good case in point. Under the protection with the official preferences in Madrid: large of prominent court officials, a small group of groups had to be efficiently schooled and, for schoolteachers under the leadership of the this purpose, a stronger emphasis on teaching diplomat Joseph Anduaga y Garimberti (1751- reading had to be paramount (for the town of 1822) proposed an organization of elementary Lorca: Gil Castroverde, 1997). Even the local classrooms capable of dealing with a larger sociedades económicas in many cities, although number of children and proposed new methods still close to traditional pedagogic models, for teaching, particularly teaching writing, then increasingly looked for alternative efficient considered the most prestigious form of teach- models of organizing mass teaching (Ferraz ing (Anduaga y Garimberti, 1781, 1790). The Lorenzo & Fuentes Pérez, 2002). disputes over the new proposals even reached the daily press and remained a contested issue The search for alternatives to the urban schools until the two groups of schoolteachers con- organized by guild schoolteachers produced an ceded to reunite into one organization in 1803 apparent alternative that at the time was particu- (Caruso, 2010b; Pereyra, 1988). larly difficult to legitimate. Both the Jesuits and their counterparts and competitors in the field While this concerted effort to renew elementary of elementary education, the Piarists, offered pedagogy took the centre-stage of educational models for schooling large groups. They did so discussion for a long time, similar attempts to with combinations of group and mutual teach- organize a suitable form of mass schooling at ing and, in the case of the Piarist order, they Bordón 65 (4), 2013, 33-45, ISSN: 0210-5934 (cid:129) 35 Marcelo Caruso developed wall charters in these decades that The inclusion of a brief chapter on education in could be used simultaneously by whole groups the Cádiz Constitution shows the highly politi- of children (Infantes, 2004; Sánchez Giménez, cal significance of the issue. Furthermore, the 1979; Scío, 1780). Since Jesuit techniques were first parliamentary drafts for a comprehensive, deemed politically inconvenient at that time, but still not universal, system of education but also due to the fact that enlightened circles confirmed that schools had became a central wanted to extend a disciplinary and more effi- arena in which the new order of things had cient form of schooling to a degree unknown to take effect. The idea that schooling the to these teaching congregations, it was not pos- people in order to re-educate it in the spirit sible to simply adopt these traditional modes of new institutions was of utmost importance of organizing massive scenes of teaching. Such was widespread. But even the most conserva- ambitious projects had to deal with the excep- tive and reactionary forces that controlled the tionally scarce financial resources of the time, political situation after 1814 now had to admit a fact that limited all grandiloquent drafts for that a return to the “good” old order had to be reform. This aspect of school reform, certainly a accompanied by a more intensive effort regard- chronic problem (García Hurtado, 2005: 69-72), ing schooling, in order to counteract the politi- became evident again when the elites enthusi- cal and social innovations of the time. astically embraced the inauguration of the first Pestalozzian school in Madrid (Sureda García, Although Spanish liberals did not intend to 1982). Beyond all the frenzy related to the new establish a centralized system of education and pedagogy, it was certainly not very promising instead preferred a design in which local, regional to adopt such an intensive and patient mode governments and civil society had to play a cer- of teaching that catered to small elite groups. tain role in the organization of mass schooling, In this sense, after three decades of reforming they still pursued the idea that centralization elementary schools in Spain, the search for a should be the rule for general regulations carried cheap, suitable and promising system of mass out by regional, local, and civic actors. Among teaching was still yielding poor results. these general rules, pedagogical models includ- ing the organization of teaching and teaching methods were at the forefront and represented Embracing the promise: a will to rationalize pedagogical practices. This the monitorial system as a issue was not only addressed by the first formu- comprehensive solution for lations of a liberal educational policy by Jovel- the extension of schooling lanos (Jovellanos, 1811), or the liberal draft for a general regulation of primary schools from 1822 The situation of elementary schooling wors- (Proyecto de reglamento, 1822), but the first ened in many aspects after 1808. The instabil- general regulations for schools issued in 1825, ity of the political situation, the War of Inde- in the middle of the political restorative era, pendence, and quarrels over the new forms of also focused heavily on day-to-day operations government certainly led to an unprecedented in schools (Plan y reglamento, 1825). Whereas number of reform proposals and projects. Yet other European countries such as France and these same contexts weakened existing schools Prussia only regulated this field towards the and determined the definitive bankruptcy of middle of the 19th century, early drafts for a the state some years later, adding a finan- national inclusive school system in Spain con- cial breakdown to the political one (Fontana, sidered this issue in particular. 2002). However, it was also in this context that the quest for a cheap, suitable and promising Against this background, it is not surprising that model of teaching the masses became urgent. the most sensationalist news circulated in Spain 36 (cid:129) Bordón 65 (4), 2013, 33-45, ISSN: 0210-5934 Cheap, suitable, promising: monitorial schooling and the challenge of mass education in early liberal Spain when the monitorial system of education, origi- was partly due to the fact that the main idea nally an English proposal for efficient, quick, of using children to teach other children had and cheap elementary instruction for groups of become a common element of almost all mod- hundreds of children, began to spread through ernizing attempts of the late 18th century. Even France after 1815: “From Saint Petersburg to those actors that rejected the modernization of the Pyrenees, the propagation of these schools is teaching writing had no problems with the gen- being projected and enacted; these are schools eral adoption of monitorial teaching as an organ- in which children receive a greater amount of izational device. A good example is the Duque instruction in a shorter time” (Suiza, 1817: 107- of Híjar, the president of the sociedad económica 108). The semi-official monthly El Mercurio de in Madrid. He presented this society with a España accompanied these developments and complete plan of education in 1817 in which he registered how other enlightened but by no showed no sympathy for modern concepts of means liberal governments such as Denmark education and repeatedly evoked the merits of and Sweden were adopting the new device. Yet the Spanish traditions (Híjar, 1817). Yet, at the independent newspapers closely related to the same time, he was one of the founding members defeated liberal forces were also second to none of the group of men coming from the upper in celebrating the new system of teaching. The nobility that attempted to introduce the system Crónica científica y literaria, for instance, proph- to Spain. The main idea of the system, children esied that “in a short time the Northern coun- teaching children, was not alien to many of these tries in Europe will have banned all other forms men, and it was not considered a rupture with of elementary teaching” (Educación, 1817: 1). inherited practices. The more liberal forces voicing the new mode of schooling in particular buttressed its relations All relevant forces in the field of changing to a broader project of modernization. First, the schooling, reforming nobles and urban enlight- irruption of the new system was an opportu- ened professionals, agreed on the merits of this nity to banish “the hurdles, the errors and the system as a suitable reform option for Spain. The routines that obstruct the spread of elemen- first results of this consensus were the publica- tary education among us” (Educación, 1817: 2). tion of some manuals describing the operations Second, and even more significantly, the new of the system, the organization of the first male form of mutual schooling became a centrepiece and female normal schools in Madrid, and the in the strategy of advancing a modern society, early establishment of the monitorial school in since “only the enemies of all advancement, Cádiz in 1818 (Caruso, 2010a: 264-277). When the detractors of vaccine, of the lightning rod, Ramón Chimioni, a member of the sociedad of lithography, of jury trial, those who believe económica in Madrid, visited the local male that there is no human happiness outside of the normal school, he confirmed the suitability of circle of ideas of the 13th century have openly this system of teaching as being the core of a rejected the mutual teaching as put into practice forthcoming uplifting of all Spanish schools: by the rightly highly-praised Mr. Lancaster” “Considering this, I am of the opinion that this (Educación pública, 1817: 7-8). It is evident that method by Lancaster and the school established inflated expectations and exaggerations when in this city along the lines of his model are depicting the results became a central element of highly useful; it will be very convenient for this this first wave of enthusiastic reception. school to continue to operate in order to instruct the persons who can propagate it in the rest of While the system of mutual instruction con- the country” (Chimioni, 1818: no pages). Again, ducted by monitors was credited with consider- Chimioni mentioned one significant element of able efficacy and a low-cost service, the fact that the monitorial system of education in his report it appeared to be suitable to Spanish conditions that reinforced the question of suitability. In Bordón 65 (4), 2013, 33-45, ISSN: 0210-5934 (cid:129) 37 Marcelo Caruso view of the fact that “the method followed in new proposals and that the Catholic Church these schools brings the children to see and copy also mistrusted the “Protestant” origins of the letters from the very beginning”, Chimioni con- system (Caruso, 2010a: 303), but the attraction sidered “it is the most suitable that we can con- of monitorial schooling seemed to be inescap- ceive” (Chimioni, 1818: no pages). One of the able at the very beginning, and this led to a strongest assets of the new system in Spain was situation in which no strong and articulated its proposal of simultaneously teaching reading opposition to the monitorial system existed and writing from the very beginning. Sensational among the elites. news concerning the almost miraculous powers of the system of instruction very often focused on the ability to write, until then a capacity Radicalizing the promise: distinct acquired only after some years of patient school- liberal acceptance of monitorial ing and which was now often being achieved schooling in only a few weeks. Even the crypto-liberal Crónica científica y literaria judged the quality The political situation changed again in 1820. of the new school on the basis of progress made With the uprising led by Riego, the moribund in writing (Educación, 1819). Even when the monarchy was given a chance to survive, now monitorial system unequivocally represented under the rules established by the Cádiz Con- aspects associated with “Englishness”, it proved stitution. Conflict between more moderate and highly compatible with traditional features of more radicalized branches of liberalism deter- Spanish elementary schooling. mined the years up until 1823, and revealed the huge differences between them. In this Although urban teachers, particularly in new setting, the political potential of moni- Madrid, were adamant in their rejection of the torial schooling came to be fully displayed. “foreign” system that menaced their reclaimed The radical-liberal daily El Constitucional was expertise in the all-important object of teaching unambiguous about it: “The famous Jean Bap- writing (Naharro, 1818), the irresistible attrac- tiste Say wrote to a Spanish sociedad económica tion of the new system of teaching as a simul- a few years ago: If people could only read, the taneous solution for pedagogical, financial and other things will come. Now, another prestig- tactical problems in the extension of schooling ious philosopher writes: spread the system of worked. For instance, the lawyer Bacas Roxo in mutual teaching, and this will be the end of Medina del Rioseco, who had worked on new the aristocracy” (El Constitucional, 1820: 6). organizational and didactic models for elemen- Considering these hopes, it is not surprising tary classrooms focusing on teaching reading, that many liberal groups established monitorial also associated his own proposals with the schools in some cities (Benito Pascual, 1994; prestige of the new imported device. He insinu- Fernández Bulete, 2001). This occurred with- ated, quoting one of the strongest slogans of out any central supervision and represented a propaganda in favour of the monitorial system, strong discontinuity with the path of central- that his proposals based on the use of children ized school reform focused on pedagogy and as little helpers made it possible to teach up methods that had prevailed since the second to one thousand of them in one school (Bacas half of the 18th century (Caruso, 2007a). Roxo, 1820: 46). And even the still prestigious Piarists tried to legitimate their elementary Yet another aspect of monitorial schooling teaching as being a system of mutual teaching became one of the most crucial political issues of “without exaggeration” (Exposición que hace a the time. The Cádiz Constitution enfranchised all las Cortes el Vicario General, 1820: 27). We do adult males. This had been a truly radical deci- know that conservative circles eschewed the sion for the time and even some liberals began to 38 (cid:129) Bordón 65 (4), 2013, 33-45, ISSN: 0210-5934 Cheap, suitable, promising: monitorial schooling and the challenge of mass education in early liberal Spain doubt the supposed beneficial results of this con- the course of school policies as well. When stitutional provision (Morange, 2006). However, parliament adopted general regulations for the the re-establishment of the Cádiz Constitution in educational system in 1821, the political moti- 1820 also marked the educational agenda, due to vation of securing franchises for the masses was an additional rule. All illiterate males would lose explicitly referred to as being a central argument their right to vote in 1830, a provision aimed for the inclusion of the monitorial system in the at defining the educated citizen as the virtuous document (Colección de los decretos y órdenes, one without ipso facto disenfranchising the great 1821: 363). The next step, the concretization majority of the population. Ten years, liberals of these general regulations in rules issued by knew, were not a long period of time in educa- the central bureau for educational affairs, shows tion. There was an evident demand for a quick the ambivalences of this process. In the famous device for spreading literacy and thereby secur- exposition that this bureau sent to parliament in ing political rights, and the monitorial system of 1822 with a complete regulation for all elemen- education definitely attracted the attention of the tary schools, the authors confirmed the adop- most progressive circles of liberalism. In view of tion of the monitorial system of mutual teaching this situation, liberal complaints about the slug- although they saw in it some shortcomings. Yet gish advancement of elementary schooling were the bureau strongly recommended the “Lancas- not exaggerated (Reflexiones políticas, 1821: 34). ter method for all things related to the particular The link between the promises of monitorial organization of each school, the economy of teaching and the political imperatives of the time time and the inner order of the school” (Expos- became a recurrent theme in liberal circles. For ición a las Cortes, 1822: 7). instance, the schoolteachers Ramón and Manuel Alaman in Huesca legitimated their own version Nonetheless, this document attempted to erase of monitorial instruction in 1820, by invoking the English origins of the new system and the constitutional provision on literacy (Alaman described it as being the “old Spanish classifica- & Alaman, 1820/2009). tion system”, a reference to the reform experi- ments from the late 18th century. This was a This constellation gave some impulse to efforts clear offer to the urban teachers, above all the for schooling adults. Adults, particularly those resilient schoolteachers in Madrid, so that they organized in the liberal milicias, were already might accept the system of mutual teaching as voters, and the possibility that this crucial con- being their “own”. This was indeed a crucial stituency could be disenfranchised after 1830 point. In these years, the first articulated and alarmed the liberals (Cepeda Gómez, 1990). explicit criticisms against the monitorial system Repeatedly, they attempted to spread literacy were published, and they came from the milieu by establishing schools of mutual instruction of the schoolteachers. They discussed the sup- in the military regiments. As early as 1820, the posed efficacy of this organization of crowded King ordered a commission to be established classrooms and manifested a strong preoc- for this purpose. Yet an impatient parliament cupation with the loss of teaching autonomy. ordered the establishment of such schools in In particular, these authors strongly rejected all regiments in June 1821. One year later, due one of the most popular arguments for the to the inactivity of the government, it adopted introduction of monitorial schooling, the cheap more precise regulations. delivery of mass instruction. One of them, José Díaz Manzanares, clearly asserted that the Beyond these initiatives that were located outside advocates of the English system “cannot deny of the modern educational system as defined in that Lancaster did not make his calculations the different drafts for a comprehensive law of for Spain“ (Díaz Manzanares, 1821: 26). The education, the constitutional provision affected schoolteachers in Madrid were probably right: Bordón 65 (4), 2013, 33-45, ISSN: 0210-5934 (cid:129) 39 Marcelo Caruso the expected savings from using the monitorial a short time and at a low cost. Contemporaries system were, if at all, savings in the long run. saw in its routines a genuine form of disci- The monitorial schools required large rooms, plining and a virtuous quest for competition standardized furniture and wall charts as well and emulation. Only the strong identification as other materials such as signals, a raised desk of monitorial schooling with liberal efforts for the teacher, and a clock, certainly luxury between 1820 and 1823 discredited the system products at that time (Vallejo, 1825: 9). At in the eyes of the modernizer royalist fraction least, the scant research results concerning this and consistently alienated any early Catholic issue show that the early investment in this support. For a few years, this system of mutual kind of school was higher than the operation teaching seemed to monopolize the meaning of of other types of schools. what was modern and rational in the field of mass education. Regardless of these critical voices, the attrac- tiveness of monitorial schooling remained. The challenge of building a national and compre- Conclusion: the challenge of large hensive system of education with a broad basis institutional designs to day-to-day at the elementary level fuelled the fantasies operations attached to these big schools, that seemed to deliver a quick, ordered, and sufficient level Following the course of events presented of instruction to an unprecedented number of above, the frenzy around the monitorial system children. The attraction this model of school- in the first years of its reception in Spain cer- ing exerted upon its contemporaries led to the tainly needs an explanation. The Spanish peda- main local alternative reform models being gogical tradition had presented options for the definitively adapted to the main idea of moni- management of large groups of children. Not torial schooling. The aforementioned associa- only Jesuit colleges, which were certainly not tion of Piarist teaching with these devices was completely discredited or forgotten, but also not the only proof of this trend. Bacas Roxo models catered to elementary schooling, such (1822) also presented his proposals in Madrid as those of the Piarists, the reformist teachers under the banner of “mutual teaching”, and in Madrid, and the efforts of individual innova- the mathematician José Mariano Vallejo (1779- tors in provincial towns presented models of 1846) combined “our excellent teaching meth- ordered instruction for a greater number of ods” with the “discoveries made in recent times pupils. Why were these models discarded after in the schools of mutual teaching in many 1808? Why could monitorial schooling attract countries” (Vallejo, 1825: 7-8). so much attention and positive resonance with the most powerful actors in the Spanish edu- The monitorial system of education remained cational scene? The question of enthusiasm one of the most influential references in edu- provoked by the “promising” method was by cational discussions for three decades (for no means a matter of “facts”. The conserva- Madrid: Caruso, 2007b). This influential posi- tive and sceptical members of the Council of tion in the field of educational reform alterna- Castile, then the highest administrative and tives might be in sharp contrast to its poor judicial body in the country, shrewdly posed realization and the low number of schools the question: actually operating with it (quantitative data after 1850 in: Caruso, 2010a: 345). However, “The members do not realize how it has in the first years of its reception in Spain, it was been possible to assert such proofs of its more than “influential”: It was rather the only advantages when, on the one hand, the plausible alternative for spreading schooling in lapse of time in which it has been practised 40 (cid:129) Bordón 65 (4), 2013, 33-45, ISSN: 0210-5934