1 21st Century African Philosophy of Adult and Human Resource Education in Southern Africa Charlene Mutamba Abstract This paper will attempt to define a philosophy of adult education for the purpose of workforce development in Southern Africa. The different influences such as Ubuntu and communalism, indigenous education, diversity western philosophy, globalization and technology are explored in the context of the Southern African region. © Charlene Mutamba 2012 2 Introduction The philosophy of adult education for the purpose of workforce development in Southern Africa has long been defined by colonialism, racism, imperialism and now globalization. In seeking to establish an educational philosophy that is relevant to the needs of countries in Southern Africa one is forced to consider the current global economic, social and political environment. I seek to define a 21st century philosophy relevant for adult education programs that are designed for workforce development by building on established African and western philosophies. The nations south of the Cunene and Zambezi Rivers; Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, South Africa, Zimbabwe and parts of Mozambique are inhabited by Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, Northern Ndebele, Southern Ndebele, Tswana, Sotho, and Shona people, BaLunda, Mbundu, Ovimbundu, Chaga and Sukuma people who speak languages that share common Bantu language and cultural traits. These nations share a unique history and cultural heritage as well as philosophy. While it is tempting to define the values and beliefs of African people in a monolithic approach it would be too presumptuous when the focus is on workforce development. In defining my philosophy I have chosen a region that shares common ancestry, values and colonial histories. It is not my goal to present a philosophy that seeks to defend the decolonization of the African mind as Wiredu, Geykeye, Ngugi, Hountondji and Nkrumah espouse (Pearce, 1992). However, I would like to incorporate the different ideas and models characteristic of most education systems to create a philosophy that will be relevant in this and the future economic environment. My goal is not to define a philosophy that alienates African from the general discourse by labeling itself uniquely and distinctly ‘African’ while running the risk of self- 3 marginalization of isolating itself not only from interaction with the wider (i.e. non-African) world but also from any critical interrogation (Horsthemke & Enslin, 2009). Some issues remain central to African educational discourse and should be considered in developing a philosophy of education for the future. Issues such as the democratization of the classroom, the importance of social and cultural contexts within curricula and syllabi, HIV/AIDS education and western funding of the educational process are all relevant in creating a philosophy. I would acknowledge that the basis for my philosophical ideas is rooted in black African tradition but one cannot ignore the emerging cultural diversity fueled by globalization. There is a broad consensus that education is both formal and informal and takes place in a classroom as well as outside the classroom. For the sake of this paper, I will construct a philosophy that is not limited to a formal and informal education system but transcends it. The process begins by asking the same questions that Brazilian philosopher Paulo Freire suggested. Freire believed there are questions we should ask ourselves. In favor of what do I study? In favor of whom? Against what do I study? Against whom do I study? (Jackson, 2007). The purpose of this paper is to establish an adult education philosophy that is relevant for workforce development in Southern African states in the 21st Century and beyond. In addition, I will examine the merits of Ubuntu and communalism, indigenous education, and global education should be considered in framing this philosophy that will enable Southern Africa to remain economically relevant in a global economy. African Philosophy of Education To define an African Philosophy of education I will begin by defining ‘African’ as Mudimbe (1988) and Hountodji (1985, 1996) as cited by Higgs (2012) do, “African simply because it is produced or promoted by Africans”. I agree with the notion by Higgs in developing 4 my philosophy that the goal goes beyond philosophy for its own sake but a philosophy that contributes towards the political, ethical and economic upliftment of human resources (Higgs, 2012). In a sense philosophy is expected to render a service which for me would be to ensure that Africans are prepared for the global economy of the future. The roots of African Adult Education can be traced back to Egypt, Ethiopia, Gao, Timbuktu which had established centers of learning many centuries prior to colonialism. However with colonialism, imperialism and globalization, there continues to be challenges in defining a 21st century adult education philosophy. African philosophy has remained largely historical but it is important that we define the philosophy of the future. The Addis Ababa Conference in 1961 was a landmark in the development of education on the continent. It was the first international conference to be held in Africa to discuss education not only for, but also by Africans. It launched a new development philosophy based on the recognition that the educational systems, especially higher education, play a pivotal role in the social, economic and cultural transformation and sustainability of nations; therefore, African culture should be an integral part of higher education (Banya & Elu, 2001). Adult education can be broadly defined as activities designed for the purpose of bringing about learning among those whose age, social roles and self-perception define them as adults. In addition the term ‘adult education’ will cover vocational and technical education and academic programs in post-secondary institutions such as colleges and universities Colonialism is the use of force or diplomacy to bring a foreign people under the rule of a dominant power. Imperialism is the desire by a militarily and economically stronger country (or its agents) to conquer and exploit another country whether directly or indirectly. Globalization is the intensification and transformation of relations between nations and the emergence of strong global actors such as 5 supra-national organizations. It refers to the fast sharing of benefits and problems on a massive scale never seen before through improved technology and the movement of ideas, ideologies and culture across the world. (Nafukho, Amutabi, & Otunga, 2005) The globalization of education in Africa began with the onset of colonialism when the goals and purposes of education changed. Prior to colonialism, African philosophies of education were localized to meet the immediate needs of the native community. As most nations in Southern Africa have only recently achieved political Independence they are in a still in the process of asserting their economic independence by redefining their values and beliefs. In establishing economic independence there is a need to address the roots of the education systems which are the foundations of economic structures. During colonialism and even post- independence adult education has been primarily shaped by western philosophy. In attempting to define a philosophy of adult education for the future it is important to remember that African societies are increasingly more urbanized and detribalized; education is shifting into a process of interaction between the guardians and seekers of knowledge without regard for age or position (Adeyemi & Adeyinka, 2003). In this shift, there is no consensus established for how these changes will define our adult education practices. African beliefs about education have changed rapidly over the past 150 years and we continue to scramble to define the past and future. Ubuntu and Communalism The philosophies of Ubuntu and Communalism have become central to African philosophy. According to Letseka (2000, p. 181) the importance of communality to traditional African life cannot be overemphasized. This is because community and belonging to a community of people constitute the very fabric of traditional African life. Unlike the Western 6 liberal notion of the individual as some sort of entity that is capable of existing and flourishing on its own, unconnected to any community of other individuals, not bound by any biological relationships or socioeconomic, political and cultural relationships, obligations, duties, responsibilities and conventions that frame and define any community of individuals, the communal conception of the individual in most traditional African settings is described by Mbiti (1970, p. 108) in the following way: Whatever happens to the individual happens to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole group happens to the individual. The individual can only say, ‘I am, because we are; and since we are, therefore I am’ (Higgs, 2012). Community in Africa is linked to the role of African states in the developmental process and is generally connected with development theories. Development is defined by economic growth and human development. The first is centered on economic growth, and the second on human development. According to Monaheng (2000) the human development approach has been broadly used in project development in rural communities. It was supposed that poor people live mainly in the rural areas, and as a result, the concept ‘community’ has also been assigned the meaning, ‘rural’ development. My concern in noting the philosophical, sociological and political elements inherent in the discourse of community in Africa has been directed at highlighting the role of community knowledge in educational research. It is evident from these philosophical, sociological and political inferences that the discourse of community in Africa reveals that: The human development approach places the people of a community at the center of projects and development strategies, and uses concepts like ‘empowerment’, ‘equity’, ‘capacity building’ and ‘participation’ to describe the developmental process. This approach is also known as the community development approach. 7 It is my goal to craft an educational philosophy for Africa that does not dwell on the romantic ideals of a pre-colonial African society. The notion that in African culture the community always comes first and that African societies place a high value of humanism which is expressed in a communal context rather than the individualism that characterizes the west is a myth that cannot sustain policy making for this century. The popular notion of ‘Ubuntu’ in African philosophy has been challenged by development of global economies. While Ubuntu fosters communalism, there is an individualistic notion that is supported by the current push towards creating a global workforce (Venter, 2004). Mkabela (1997) as cited by Venter (2004) is right in advocating an African philosophy of education that deals with the issues of imposition of western values on African culture, encourages critical thinking, deals with modes of thinking regarding Africans as lesser human beings. I also agree with their notion that, “African Philosophy of Education should try to reconstruct African culture to fit and facilitate modern learning in an African setting.” Africans will need to consider a value system that will take into account the political, social, economic challenges they face in a modern world because of the impact and demands of westernization. Subjects taught at school should relate to real life issues and should fit into the context of the learners’ society. On the other hand education should also be in line with international trends in economy and modern technology (Venter, 2004). Makgoba (1996) as cited by Horsthemke (2004) argues that an overemphasis on the economy as the standard of judging and evaluating recognition, respect, acceptance and success… humans have lost dignity, status and respect. Western style democracies have attained liberty but have lost humanism. While humanism is an important aspect of African culture, one cannot ignore that economics and human resource development are important aspects too. 8 There is too much simplicity in describing African society as, “communities, in a very broad sense, that closely participate in the socialization of their members. Parents, older brothers and sisters, grandparents, uncles, aunts, neighbors and elders that all participate in the socialization process and feel a sense of responsibility for the results….The focus is on the development of the community not a specific individual. Individuality is developed but the emphasis is on the individual’s development as part of a community, not to resolve personal dilemmas” (Beckloff, 2008). While Beckloff (2008) correctly describes some aspects of African societies, colonialism, imperialism and globalization have altered some aspects of African society and individualism is becoming prevalent with increased urbanization. He further asserts that, “In Africa, adult educators must not focus on the individual but on community. This precludes approaching educational programs with the common Western humanistic concept of self-actualization in mind.” If we follow Beckloff’s (2008) assertions, how do we account for the influence of western educational programs particularly in urban areas where most institutions of adult education are located? Even with the aspect of community learning, how does that fit into the context of a global economy and the globalization of education? Current Literature suggests that adult education in southern Africa has continued to be molded by different influences. While nations in southern Africa try to establish standards that reflect local needs, Intergovernmental organizations, such as the United Nations, OECD, and the World Bank, are promoting global educational agendas that reflect discourses about human capital, economic development, and multiculturalism. At the same time Information and communication technology is speeding the global flow of information and creating a library of world knowledge. Global nongovernment organizations, particularly those concerned with 9 human rights and environmentalism, are trying to influence school curricula based on their perception of the needs of Africans. Multinational corporations, particularly those involved in publishing, information, testing, for-profit schooling, and computers, are marketing their products to governments, schools, and parents around the world (Spring, 2008). This constant tug and pull of different forces makes it difficult for nations in southern Africa to establish independent standards that meet their needs for human resource development. It is encouraging that Venter acknowledges that Ubuntu “remains an ideal, because in the global village it is often not practiced, but the ideal would be that the human race would care for one another” (Venter, 2004). While Ubuntu is a noble idea it is too vague a philosophy to use in establishing educational standards for the future. Many African philosophers argue that the notion of Ubuntu itself has not been tested as a philosophy on its own but rather as an idea within the collective realm of African philosophy. According to Wiredu (1996), African intellectuals who continue to revive and reinstate traditional thinking in Africa without reference to present modern ways of thinking, are doing a disservice to Africa by pretending that traditional ways of thinking are still sufficient, useful or even applicable to today’s needs in Africa. According to Wiredu (1996), there are new and modern problems and challenges facing Africa, and traditional ways of thinking cannot always cope with these problems and challenges (Higgs, 2012). Proponents of Ubuntu philosophical thought use it as a contrast to western individualism, and often with the assumption that western ideals are selfish and uncommitted to the good of others. One has to consider that if the current global economy is primarily shaped by western philosophy then we must acknowledge this diversity in crafting our own values. 10 Indigenous Education Michael B. Adeyemi and Augustus A. Adeyinka have defended the idea of returning to a modified form of indigenous African education. They have presented five principles that, they claim, informed customary education in Africa and continue to yield 'sound philosophical foundations' for contemporary education. These principles are 'preparationism, functionalism, communalism, perennials and wholisticism' (Adeyemi & Adeyinka, 2003). The principle of preparationism implies that 'the role of learning and teaching was to equip boys and girls with the skills appropriate to their gender in preparation for their distinctive roles in the society' The principle of 'functionalism' is related to the principle of preparationism: With few exceptions, if any, traditional educational practices in pre-colonial Africa were predominantly utilitarian. 'Communalism' was the third principle ('all members of the society owned things in common and applied the communal spirit to life and work'). By 'perennialism', Adeyemi and Adeyinka mean that 'most traditional communities in Africa perceived education in Africa as a vehicle for maintaining or preserving the cultural heritage and status quo. Fifth, 'wholisticism or multiple learning' provided young people with skills they needed for their future, mainly gender-specific, occupations (Adeyemi et al, 2003). They discussed two major weaknesses with traditional African education. The first is that its focus on clan or tribe, along with its oral rather than its written literacy restricts the possible transfer of skills and knowledge across space and time. A second general shortcoming is that traditional African education favored indoctrination rather than reflective thinking. Once these two problems are addressed, possibly in the light of 'the good aspects of the formal education of the western type' (p. 439), the authors were confident that traditional African education would