DOCUMENT RESUME CE 082 657 ED 461 031 Laiken, Marilyn; Edge, Karen; Friedman, Stephen; West, AUTHOR Karima From Informal to Organizational Learning in the TITLE Post-Industrial Workplace. NALL Working Paper. Ontario Inst. for Studies in Education, Toronto. New INSTITUTION Approaches to Lifelong Learning. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, SPONS AGENCY Ottawa (Ontario). NALL-WP-29-2001 REPORT NO 2001-00-00 PUB DATE NOTE 17p. AVAILABLE FROM For full text: http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/depts/sese/csew/nall/res/29fromi nformal.htm. Reports Research (143) PUB TYPE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. EDRS PRICE Adult Education; Adult Learning; Conflict Resolution; DESCRIPTORS Corporate Education; Developed Nations; Educational Environment; Foreign Countries; *Informal Education; *Labor Force Development; *Lifelong Learning; *On the Job Training; *Organizational Climate; *Organizational Development; Participative Decision Making; Skill Development; Team Training; Values Clarification Canada; *Learning Organizations IDENTIFIERS ABSTRACT A research project studied in depth four organizations using organizational learning approaches to embed continuous learning within actual work processes. The most sustainable benefits, in terms of both individual and organizational needs, tended to result from "action" or "situated" , learning that is informal and accrues directly from work-related activities. This learning took place in the interstices of organizational life and was characterized by relationship and interpersonal interaction through basic social processes such as individual informal learning, team learning, learning through dealing with conflict; making and reflecting on mistakes; and shared leadership in support of informal learning. These three sets of activities were identified as key factors in ensuring an organizational climate conducive to learning: creating a values-based shared vision of both the task-related goals and the internal functioning of the organization; examining and revising systems, procedures, and processes, so that they clearly reflect the vision and values in action; and continuously evaluating progress towards achieving the vision, so the gap between the vision and the current reality is progressively decreased. (Contains 39 references.) (YLB) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. From Informal to Organizational Learning in the Post-Industrial Workplace NAL Working Paper #29-2001 Marilyn Laiken (Principal Investigator) Karen Edge Stephen Friedman Karima West U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproduced as 13 received from the person or organization M. Laiken originating it. 0 Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. AVAILABLE BEST COPY 2 NALL Working Paper #29-2001 FROM INFORMAL TO ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING IN THE POST-INDUSTRIAL WORKPLACE ©Marilyn Laiken (Principal Investigator), Karen Edge, Stephen Friedman, Karima West1 *A version of this working paper will appear as a chapter in a soon-to-be-released Group 5 book. Le Réseau de recherche sur les the research network for NAL L nouvelles approches de New Approaches to Lifelong l'éducation permanente Learning ABSTRACT In the light of current examples of re-engineering, restructuring, mergers and acquisitions, some Canadian organizations in the public, private and not-for-profit sectors provide a environment for individuals and teams to negotiate effectively the kind of organizational change which has become endemic in today's workplace. A focus on informal learning through basic social processes contributes to employees' collective ability to move beyond simply coping with stress to engaging in creative action. A three-year research project, conducted between 1998 and 2001, located and studied, in-depth, four such organizations which were using organizational learning approaches to embed continuous learning within the actual work processes. While each of the cases presents a unique context, they together provide valuable thematic lessons in how to create working environments which contribute both to individual health and to organizational sustainability. FROM INFORMAL TO ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING IN THE POST-INDUSTRIAL WORKPLACE Introduction Since Peter Senge et al (1990, 1994, 1999) popularized Chris Argyris' and Donald Schon's work on organizational learning (1978, 1990) over a decade ago, the concept has pervaded the lexicon of workplace learning and change. However, despite legions of books, articles, films, courses, conferences and complete professional and academic programs on the subject, the concept of organizational learning remains difficult to define, and even more difficult to implement in practice. One of the challenges facing organizations attempting to integrate organizational learning principles is their lack of specific D examples of how these relatively complex notions translate into daily workplace experience. A three-year research project was conducted between 1998-2001, to locate and study Canadian organizations using organizational learning approaches to embed on-going learning within the actual 3 work processes whether at an individual, team or strategic level. This research intended to be a voice for such organizations, where efforts to create a learning environment have benefited their clients or customers, employees and volunteers, whose lives are dramatically affected by these new organizational forms. Our hope was that, by providing visibility to such "models" of organizational learning, the research would not only reinforce current best practices, but also demonstrate the potential of such practices across work sectors, organizational size, and widely diverse employee populations. The study initially identified forty-two organizations, which either self-reported or appeared in the literature as examples of those attempting to become, or demonstrating features of a learning organization. Of these, ten organizations agreed to participate in the research, and administered, to a cross-section of ten randomly selected employees, The Learning Organization 5 Stage Diagnostic Survey (Woolner et al, 1995, appendix A). The results of this survey provided the research team with five organizations which self-identified at mature stages of development as a learning organization in the B).2 Of the five, four of these organizations areas of individual, team and strategic learning (appendix funded organization, and a medium-sized hospital, a large retail chain, a small not-for-profit government individual interviews, a large electronics manufacturer volunteered for more in-depth study through focus groups and on-site observation. All four of the organizations represented in this chapter must be viewed in the context of the current turbulent workplace environment caused by globalization, restructuring, reengineering, mergers and acquisitions. Within this milieu of upheaval and transition, which has become endemic in the modern workplace, our team of researchers was particularly interested in discovering what role informal learning might play in contributing to employees' ability to move beyond simply coping with stress to individually, and organizationally. We were also interested in how these engaging in creative action organizations might be embedding such informal learning in their very structure and culture, so that its benefits would be sustainable, despite future changes in leadership. Finally, we were concerned about what kind of leadership would be required to support and legitimize informal learning approaches, and help make them part of organizational "memory", while simultaneously respecting the integrity of employee learning as valuable in its own right. This chapter will explore each of these issues in turn. The Case Examples3 Wealthshare is a non-unionized, not-for-profit grant-making organization which was established in 1982 as an arm's length agency of the Ontario Government. Its purpose is to disburse a portion of the proceeds of gaming to charitable organizations across the province, in order to help build healthy, sustainable and caring communities as a strategic contribution to Ontario civil society. Wealthshare's Mission, Vision and Values states: We encourage collaborative and imaginative, holistic approaches to increased community well-being which recognize the important and interdependent role that arts, culture, recreation, sports and social services play, and the underlying value of a sustainable economy and environment. (organizational documentation, p. 1) During the year in which our research was conducted with Wealthshare (January to December, 1999), the organization had changed dramatically. The budget was increased from 12 million to 100 million dollars; the staff numbers had grown from twelve to eighty; the well-respected CEO had been terminated by the incoming Board of Directors, and had not yet been replaced; the structure of the organization was decentralized, and now included regional offices in various areas of the Province; and the entire head office physical plant had been completely renovated. Urban Religious Hospital (URH), as the name implies, is a religiously affiliated hospital operating within a Canadian urban centre. It has a strong community focus and prides itself on its work with its community neighbours, in particular, the poor and the homeless. Until ten years ago, URH was suffering from what seemed to be an irreversible debt crisis. However, over the course of the last decade, URH has succeeded in its quest to become a profitable provider of 'excellent quality patient care.' The last decade has been one of significant upheaval within the Canadian health care system. Within that system, hospitals have experienced the most dramatic change, and have often been faced with unprecedented funding cuts and budget shortfalls. Urban Religious Hospital provides an example of one that has risen to the challenges, maintained its focus on its values, and continued to thrive despite the tumultuous climate. Homewares is a home furnishings retailer with more than 800 stores in the U.S., Canada, Mexico, Puerto Rico, the United Kingdom and Japan. Worldwide, this non-unionized, publicly traded, 39-year-old company employs roughly 10,000 employees and is one of North America's leading specialty home fashions retailers. Its mission includes a strong customer focus which staff try to enact by ensuring that the shopping experience is enjoyable, and provides the customer with a varied selection of unique home furnishings and accessories. Homewares also has articulated its commitment to employee learning and to taking a socially conscious approach to business. Its philanthropic endeavors include an international, national, and local focus through fund-raising and community outreach. Homewares' partnering relationships with organizations like the United Way and UNICEF have resulted in contributions of more than $17 million to hundreds of worthy causes across the globe. With respect to learning, this organization states that having fun at work in combination with training opportunities and a "team learning" environment best describe the intended experience for employees, whether at the store, distribution centre, or home office location. ThermoDial is a leading supplier of building control solutions, including building automation systems for heating, ventilation and air conditioning, comprehensive services for mechanical equipment and building automation, design-build engineering services, integrated security, surveillance, fire and alarm systems, and technical services to assess and improve energy efficiency. Customers include builders of homes, schools, hospitals, office buildings, museums, airports, shopping centres and other public institutions. Over the past decade, the CEO of a Canadian ThermoDial manufacturing plant has incorporated innovative management practices and learning strategies into the workplace, in an effort to streamline and update systems and procedures and improve quality of work life for all staff. As part of a large, diversified, multinational organization, this plant employs 300 people, 200 of whom are unionized, and is a ThermoDial Centre of Excellence for production of valves and actuators that are exported around the world. Basic Social Processes as an Avenue for Informal Learning The case examples previewed represent organizations that view learning, and in particular the kind of informal learning which happens naturally as part of daily work, as critical to both their effectiveness in achieving their goals, and in providing a stimulating, challenging, developmental environment for all of their employees. This concern, supported by the literature in organizational learning and redesign (Trist, 1981; Emery, 1980; Senge, 1990, 1999) values the joint optimization of both the social and technical or the achievement of organizational goals through the enhancement of the workplace as a systems continuous learning environment (Laiken, 1987, 1997). The more typical site of learning, in the form of individual professional development (often represented by one-off training events), is valued to varying degrees in all of our cases organizations. However, the most sustainable benefits, in terms of both individual and organizational needs, tend to result from "action" or "situated" learning (Revans, 1982; Lave & Wenger, 1991) which is informal, and accrues directly from work-related activities. This is the learning that takes place in the interstices of in the coffee shop or during a car pool, in a meeting, or on the shop floor during a organizational life production process. It is characterized by relationship and interpersonal interaction through basic social processes such as: formal and informal problem-solving in groups or teams; making mistakes, reflecting on the experience, and applying the learning in practice; confronting the gaps between organizational vision and the reality; dealing directly with conflict or difference in the workplace; participating in organizational decision-making; filling a leadership "vacuum"; learning technical skills from peers through cross-training on the job. Brown & Duguid describe this type of workplace learning as a process which occurs through "webs of participation" (1991, 1992). Wenger and Lave (1998), and Wenger (1996, 1999) have characterized these informal learning webs as "communities of practice", while Boland and Tenkasi (1995) refer to them as "communities of knowing". Rather than representing organizational learning as that which occurs within formal systems, for instance through databases or classroom training, their approach addresses learning which occurs through participation at work outside of formally-designed professional development opportunities. Organizations that encourage, or at least do not prevent these emergent communities, recognize that knowledge transfer and more integrated learning is best facilitated by authentic social interaction. Individual informal learning Although individual informal learning through social interaction can be supported and encouraged anywhere, it appears to be more difficult to achieve through strict adherence to traditional formal hierarchies (Lave & Wenger, 1991). ThermoDial's Canadian plant has experienced a dramatic change in the last decade from a traditional assembly line structure to one of relatively independently operating work teams, each responsible for a complete production cycle. Where once staff would spend their entire day blindly performing one specific operation on a product (e.g. connecting a wire to a screw, or putting two parts together) before passing the parts on to the next worker, now teams of five to ten individuals rotate all relevant jobs. For their particular line, each team member must be able to download order and supplies information from the computer system, perform all assembly tasks, inspect the product and make adjustments when errors are found, and prepare finished goods for shipping in a "just-in-time" manufacturing environment. As might be expected, the roles of staff and management have evolved throughout this transition. Staff are more psychologically engaged, and feel responsible both for their own success and for contributing to the overall success of the company. Apart from enhancing job satisfaction, this results in financial gain for all involved, through reward for skills and knowledge accrued. Commitment is promoted by delegating responsibility as well as authority directly to the front-line staff. In the process, learning, through self-direction and through interaction with others, becomes an integral part of accomplishing the task: We used to have people working... overtime and every day doing a repair. Why? ... Because we didn't care. Somebody else was going to correct our garbage. Now we care because the [reject] is going to come back to me. I don't want that, so I'm trying to do my job right the very first time. (Line Staffl I do new things all the time in my job, so I almost have to learn new things just to keep up with the growing technology. So I usually know what I need before they do, so I'll approach them that I need this, and usually they supply it somehow. (Engineer) I feel far more comfortable to ask questions now. If you have a disagreement with something, you know that your opinion is going to be valued. And in my relationship with my manager, that I can ask him anything. Absolutely anything, and I would disagree with anything. We trust the people we work with, and we trust their opinions as well. (Production Supervisor) Management's role is to support the employees' potential to succeed by looking for ways to incorporate new skills and knowledge into the work. Their role is best envisioned by what Block (1993) terms "stewardship" and Kofman and Senge (1993) call "servant leadership". Managers view their staff as their priority customers, and tailor their support and the environment, whenever possible, to accommodate their employees' strengths and needs, in order to enable the most effective achievement of organizational goals. when it comes to actually doing the job and learning the computer skills.., they're side by ... side with their co-workers, they're not with me. I'm here for them, and they choose who they're comfortable with... I don't designate someone on the line to be, okay, you're going to train these people, I don't do that. My personal belief is that people need to be able to go to whoever they're comfortable with, because if they're uncomfortable they'll never learn. I think I had seven people who were trained on the new Oracle system. Of those seven people, there are four that are constantly on their feet showing people the new system. (Production Supervisor) At Wealthshare, although the formal structure is more traditionally hierarchical, there is, as at ThermoDial, a strong valuing of individual and team autonomy, and an unequivocal respect for learning. Also, as in the first case, the context for informal learning here usually results from a work-related need, and ranges from formalized meetings such as a staff retreat, to more informal hallway conversations, or small self-appointed teams working on a particular issue of importance to all members. Respondents repeatedly offer examples of their learning in this context, noting that even during a formal orientation/training session, it is the informal learning through social interaction which people experience as particularly significant: and we were sort It was mostly just the discussions among people being trained together of sorting out the issues on our own. (Staff) to provide like in the early stages we did a collective analysis of the application Oh yeah it just came out of the group. different views, different ways of looking at an application That's how I learned to do those things. (StajD So no one really knows, so no one is really able to give you any concrete answers. So all sorts of stuff about how there are chat lines, and so on there's on-going discussion we teach each other all the time. (Staff) you interpret things Team Learning Team environments, which are increasingly becoming the norm organizationally (Boyett & Conn, 1992; Lawler, Mohrman & Ledford, 1992; Katzenbach & Smith, 1993) provide another site for informal learning through social interaction on the job. Although Wealthshare is committed organizationally to team learning, its success with teams has been mixed. Some of the problems encountered are directly related to the lack of systemic stability in a dramatically changing organization. However, many of the issues are similar to those experienced in more stable organizations (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993) such as our other two research sites (Homewares and URH), including: teams not feeling that they have enough autonomy to make decisions which directly affect them, or being unclear about decision-making boundaries; lack of effective team facilitation; a lack of willingness to raise conflictual issues openly for fear of hurting feelings, and therefore not attending to setting potentially helpful group norms; and focusing only on task, without ever attending to the group's process. Oh, they look bored at the meeting, and they don't make notes, and they think, well, didn't we already discuss this? So people try to speed up the tempo, you know, and it's a good but it's also a forum where you can get a little deeper thing, because there is work to do .. into some issues ... (Stajj) The teams that seem to most effectively provide a context for individual and group informal learning in all of our sites have a number of common characteristics. They meet regularly; the meetings, although task-focused, include time for reflection on their process; they attend to individual as well as group needs; and are usually facilitated by someone (not necessarily the manager) who has some skill in team leadership, and is focused on sharing these skills with every member. These teams support individual professional development to help members learn needed skills, name problems as they arise and deal directly with them, and often act as an on-going community of practice by providing a forum for dialogue, in addition to problem-solving regarding work-related issues. Most importantly, the team members function interdependently, and are collectively accountable for achieving mutually agreed-upon team goals. Homewares, conversely, although its intention is to function as a team-based organization, teaches us about teams as a context for learning through a negative example. Overall, our data from this site suggest that while the organization does not discourage teams, efforts to formally support the use of teams is not that explicit. One respondent says, "there's nothing formal, nothing developed thus far for Homewares in interviews, regard". Additionally, only one explicit effort to become team oriented was mentioned in the which consisted of mangers attending a retreat where they experienced team building exercises with the conditions strangers. While this is indeed an effort to teach some team skills, it does not meet outlined by Wenger and Lave (1998) and other theorists (Revans, 1982; Brown & Duguid, 1991) for truly integrated learning, in that it did not take place in the context in which it was to be practiced, and experience. was not supported by the organization, beyond the initial training The paradox raised by the Homewares case is that, in order for more informal learning within a team to later in take place effectively, the organization must provide a context of formal support (to be discussed this chapter under the heading of "organizational culture"). It must make conscious efforts to define what it means by the term "team", rather than simply labelling all working groups as teams (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). Further, team learning, however informal, must be accompanied by explicit efforts to define the processes and norms for how a team is expected to operate, as well as supported by more formal training in the skills needed for effective team leadership and membership (Laiken, 1993, 1998). Learning Through Dealing with Conflict; Making and Reflecting on Mistakes for more At Wealthshare, the most challenging area for the teams was also designated responsible individual and group learning outcomes than any other identified. This is the realm of making mistakes, reflecting on the experience, and applying the learning in practice, and includes risk-taking and conflict management. Sources of conflict at Wealthshare seem typical of most organizations. The most common include clarity differences in status, assumptions which go unclarified, feeling silenced in a discussion, lack of regarding roles, goals, expectations of others, lack of trust, perceived workload inequities, etc. (Laiken, 1994). However, what seems somewhat unique at Wealthshare, and helps designate it as a "learning organization", is the cultural norm which supports confronting conflicts openly, and viewing them as opportunities for learning. Nonetheless, here, as in other aspects of functioning, there are individual differences - with some people more willing to be direct in dealing with conflict than are others. Confronting conflict seems to be more risky, as might be expected, when the person being confronted is there one's manager, as opposed to one's peer in the organizational hierarchy. However, at Wealthshare, his/her even new hires seem prepared to call a manager on is a surprising lack of fear in this respect especially when the latter is contravening an organizational norm. This kind of behaviour confrontation is not only condoned, but encouraged actively, as part of Wealthshare's cultural values: number of times, people made a courageous step by calling our CEO on some stuff and ... a in a way that was really helpful for the whole rest of the staff when they took that step. You like "I don't think you're respecting my opportunity to speak know, basically a "time out" in this arena". People then acknowledged the courageousness of that step. (Manager) The underlying belief is that, if people either recognize mistakes on their own, or learn about them in through feedback from others, and most importantly, see this as an opportunity to learn and improve the future, both the individual and the organization will benefit. The most critical principle here seems to where employees are supported in viewing mistakes simply as an be an explicit culture of "no blame" opportunity for learning (Gephart et al, 1996; Kofman & Senge, 1993). It appears from our research that organizations intent on enhancing learning from experience prohibit, both culturally and procedurally, the use of threat, punishment or blame. We're laid back when it comes to mistakes that happen . we recognize it for what it is, it's this is the phrase that always a small thing, no problem, no blame... and we always say .. "next time we'll do it better". (Staff Wealthshare) comes back everybody's included in all the good things about working in a team environment... and ... if you screw it up, we'll fix it tomorrow. So there's no punishment, there's no downside to making a mistake, either. (Production Supervisor, ThermoDial). Shared Leadership in Support of Informal Learning In three of our four cases, an increase in individual and team autonomy was an outgrowth of major organizational transition. URH was suffering from an unprecedented debt crisis due to large funding cuts and budget shortfalls, resulting in major restructuring of its systems and processes. ThermoDial's transition to its new approach required additional skills training for all staff, for many of whom English was a second language. It also required a leap of faith to appreciate that a flattened hierarchy and distributed responsibility would be an improvement on the old system, and not simply 'more work for the same pay". Finally, the new approach was introduced at a time of downsizing, where most supervisory roles were eliminated. The remaining unionized employees realized that their traditional seniority program of advancement from assembly to set-up to inspection roles would be irrelevant in a setting where all staff would now be required to rotate diverse jobs as part of self-managed units. At Wealthshare, although the changes were largely positive, and the atmosphere generally expectant and charged with the excitement of a growing enterprise, the transition was also a difficult one. New systems and procedures were evolving, but were not yet fully in place; staff roles were shifting, resulting in concerns about loss of the kind of autonomy that had become the norm in the smaller organization; and the decentralized structure resulted in central and regional differences which had not yet been reconciled. At a time when strong leadership would have been welcomed, there was no Executive Director, but only an over-worked senior management team struggling valiantly to respond to the varying complex demands of an essentially new organization. Whether it was explicitly designed to be a feature of the organization, as at ThermoDial, or was the result of an unanticipated leadership vacuum, as at Wealthshare, the opportunity for more distributed, participative leadership among all employees presented itself as a key enhancer of informal learning in these workplaces. In our research sites, those on the "front lines" of the organization offered concrete examples of how they were invited to use their skill, knowledge and creativity in their daily work. A critical aspect of such autonomy is the strong sense that employees have of being trusted to act professionally and responsibly. At URH a staff member says: We follow up with patients. I have my own business cards that I can give to patients so that they can contact me. All the nurses in the clinic have them too. Everyone has a direct link to me as a person. It makes everything more professional. At ThermoDial, employees say they have gained in both direct and indirect ways from acquiring the new skills associated with increased responsibilities in their jobs, including more confidence in their own judgment and in their potential to learn and contribute. This has been the biggest learning experience of my life...people are no longer a great mystery. (Production Supervisor) [now] I'm It's good for ThermoDial; it's good for me first... with the computer courses ... not afraid of the computer. When you know how to operate a computer, it's much easier to learn new stuff So every day we're learning. Right now we're trained for Oracle, the new program that we have here. It was not a big deal because we have so much knowledge of the computer. You know what I mean? It's much easier. Like learning, I mean for me, I'm learning every day. And I have a mind, especially when it comes to computers, I know that. (Line Stag) In all cases, the opportunity to participate in organizational decision-making through distributed leadership was viewed by research participants as a major contributor to their learning, development and increased self-confidence on the job. Important enablers in this process include accessibility of information, and a sense among employees that they are being trusted to make decisions by using that information responsibly. At Thermo Dial respondents praise the efficiency of information sharing throughout the plant, particularly between management and staff. Line staff obtain an understanding of customer needs through both formal and informal interaction with sales and marketing, internal postings, and information sessions with management. Being kept informed is important to front line workers, who want to comprehend their contribution to the organization as a whole ... because we have the documents, we have the figures and we have the instruction how to ... do everything, if we see something wrong we can stop the line right away... It might be a short time until I see the engineer or something... Because the way we work, we're flexible. (Line Staff) have enough experience that, frankly, I could go for a week and never speak to any of ... we them, the world will function just fine. I know the products well enough and have been here long enough, and have such confidence in people doing their job that they don't need me. (Production Supervisor) Although some newer employees continued to feel vulnerable and in need of direction, all chose Wealthshare as a workplace in which they could expect personal autonomy and self-direction to be valued. The transitional leadership vacuum provided an invitation to fully exercise this autonomy, and most teams and individual employees accepted the invitation with enthusiasm. Workers participated in interviewing and selecting new hires - which many appreciated as a key informal learning opportunity; recommendations regarding a wide variety of operating issues were proposed by individuals and teams, and implemented; employees found themselves defining their own roles, within organizational parameters, particularly in newly designated jobs, such as Area Manager; and individuals were offered much room for flexibility through job arrangements such as home working. Like mainly, you have a free handle on how to develop your local grant review team. For example, what I did in my region is, I involved them a lot in site visits, as a way of educating them. In our first meeting, we didn't have applications to review, so I invited the Social Planning Council to provide a context. In a way, yeah, I see myself as having the authority or freedom to do things ... (Manager). It's very open, there's a lot of opportunity to particzpate generally. There is a strong value changes are not made without striking in respecting everyone's voice. Lots of discussion working groups. It's a very consultative, participative organization. (Stag) Workers at Homewares also attribute much of their important informal learning directly to the amount of autonomy they experience in their role. A staff person notes that her manager views her desire to take initiative as an opportunity for her to learn some new aspect of the store management. She says: "...many of the operational decisions in the store are up to my own discretion". Other Homewares staff gain a sense of autonomy through the freedom they experience to display items in the store using their own creativity, by the receptivity with which their suggestions regarding visual display are met, and through the encouragement to find creative ways to provide excellent service. One employee comments that associates are given "turf" in the form of sole responsibility for one area of the store, where they are invited to use their initiative to create displays, etc. Opportunities for informal learning through increased autonomy clearly benefit individual employees in our research sites. However, of equal importance, they appear to also result in improved group cohesiveness as well as greater quality in services and products for the organization as a whole. At ThermoDial, both management and staff indicate that their team approach has improved quality because of a shared responsibility for team output and a commitment to quality by every member of the organization. With the sense of ownership for the final product delegated right to the front line, staff are more conscientious about their work.