DOCUMENT RESUME CE 073 506 ED 403 487 Leadership and Management Development. TITLE PUB DATE 96 28p.; In: Academy of Human Resource Development NOTE (AHRD) Conference Proceedings (Minneapolis, MN, February 29-March 3, 1996); see CE 073 480. Reports Speeches/Conference Papers (150) PUB TYPE Viewpoints Research /Technical (143) (Opinion/Position Papers, Essays, etc.) (120) MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. EDRS PRICE Adult Education; Blacks; Communications; *Corporate DESCRIPTORS Education; Curriculum Development; Employed Women; *Labor Force Development; *Leadership Training; *Management Development; *Mentors; Performance Technology; Technological Advancement; Training Methods; Womens Education African Americans IDENTIFIERS ABSTRACT This document contains four papers presented at a symposium on leadership and management development moderated by Mark 'Porter at the 1996 conference of the Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD). "Expanding Formative Experiences: A Critical Dimension of Leadership Deportment" (Gary D. Geroy, Jackie_L. Jankovich) advocates focusing leadership development interventions on evolving new common sense behaviors for both men and women. Susan R. Meyer's paper "Mentoring and Reflection: Enhancing Managerial Skills" reports the findings of structured telephone interviews of two groups of mentors and proteges who were involved in an 18-month mentoring program enhance professional growth in the context of a management development program. "A Case Study of African-American Women's Corporate Leadership Experiences: Contextual Implications for Human Resource Development" (Valeria J. Stokes) reports an ethnographic case study establishing that African-American women in entry- and executive-level corporate management positions have had adverse leadership experiences attributed to their gender and ethnicity. "New Management Roles in the Communications Industry" (Kemp van Ginkel, Wim J. Nijhof, Jan N. Streumer) outlines a new flexible curriculum structure that was developed based on a study of recent changes in the communications industry, including changes in management styles in the industry. Papers contain references. (MN) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** SYMPOSIUM [251 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT Chair: Mark Porter, National-Louis University Expanding Formative Experiences: A Critical Dimension of Leadership Deportment Gary D. Geroy, Colorado State University Jackie L. Jankovich, Colorado State University Mentoring and Reflection: Enhancing Managerial Skills Susan R. Meyer, Training by Design A Case Study of African-American Women's Corporate Leadership Experiences: Contextual Implications for Human Resource Development Valeria J. Stokes, Sears University New Management Roles in the Communications Industry Kemp van Ginkel, University of Twente Wim J. Nijhof, University of Twente Jan N. Streumer, University of Twente Academy of Human Resource Development 1996 Conference Minneapolis, MN February 29-March 3, 1996 REPRODUCE AND PERMISSION TO U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION MATERIAL DISSEMINATE THIS °Mc Of Educational Research and Impronement 2 GRANTED BY HAS BEEN ATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION ED CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproduced as 2 received from the person or organizahon Originating it. Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. RESOURCES Pants of we* or opinions stated .n this docu- EDUCATIONAL TO THE ment do not necessarily represent official CENTER (ERIC) INFORMATION OERI position or policy. RFRT enpv ARI F 608 Expanding Formative Experiences : A Critical Dimension of Leadership Deportment Gary D. Geroy Colorado State Universiy Jackie L. Jankovich Colorado State Universio, Leadership deportment should no longer be attributed to gender, rather it must be attributed to the influence of formative experiences. In this discussion, formative experiences are defined as that which is perceived to be common sense from one's early development. Research suggests that traditional female socialization experiences promote participatory leadership skills; whereas traditional male socialization does not Therefore, leadership development interventions should focus on evolving new common sense behaviors for both genders. his or her Participative Leadership, as defined by Daft (1994), 'means that the leader consults with Leader behavior includes asking for opinions and suggestions, subordinates about decisions. encouraging participation in decision making, and meeting with subordinates in their workplaces. The participative leader encourages group discussion and written suggestions" ( p. 494). Burns refers to the engaging activity mentioned above as Transformational Leadershipleaders and followers raising one another to higher levels of motivation (Rost, 1993). Lilcert, similar to Daft, labels Participative Management as key policy decisions being made in groups by consensus (Burke, 1992). Rosener (1995, pg 31) concludes that 'interactive style involves managing in a collaborative rather than top-down fashion." Cast the labels aside and the issue being discussed is leadership facilitation of the interaction of organizational members for the betterment of the workgroup and or workplace. A superordinate debate the rapidly changing environments and attendant revolves around appropriate leadership style for, evolution of participative workgroup strategies. We believe astute organization leaders need to maximize the collective energy of these groups. Our bias, supported by current literature, is that leaders will be most successful when embracing a participative, interactive leadership style. However, our discussion in no way denies the utility and contributions of other leadership styles. Our premise is that in truly participative workgroup environments, this contemporary style of In addition, we suggest that the so-called choice should be utilized by all leadersmen and women all gender-specific behavioral frameworks, which some label as biased, have prevented scholars of leadership theory from accepting the Participative Style as gender-neutral. Our discussion will focus this transcends upon the influence of early formative experiences upon leadership deportment, and how the gender bound paradigms of traditional leadership theory. For the purpose of this paper, formative experiences are defined as that which we perceive to be common sense based on early development experiences. C copyright, Geroy,G.D., Jankovich J.L,1996 25-1 3 609 Gender-Specific Behaviors "wiping the slate behaviors is necessary before proceeding with A brief background of gender-specific behavioral with that of a contemporary gender-neutral clean" and replacing the existing frameworks framework suggest male leaders theorists Contemporary leadership Behaviors Male-Spec This style is touted as suitable for hierarchical predominately use a "Command-and-Control" style. "Masculine paradigms of the past Daft suggests that organizationsstructures which are associated with of male- rational analysis, and competitiveness grew out qualities such as aggression, assertiveness, task-orientation based Others postulate that men have a dominated military and sports traditions" (p.30). achieving power and gaining in competitive activities all of which encourage on socialization grounded using terms as; describe the resulting leadership deportment authority. Most modern leadership theories . . . . telling, c o n t r o l l i n g , d e m a n d i n g e t c female socialization was Current research suggests that traditional Female Specific Behaviors "Feminine qualities in mature human interaction skills. based on home and family experiences resulting sensitivity, and consensus-building. " (Daft, p.30), such as openness, encouragement, understanding, and nurses. skills ie; wives, mothers, volunteers, teachers prepared women for roles exemplifying these and coaches the desirable behaviors which facilitators Today, however, these qualities have led to organizational structure skills are necessary for success in the flattened possess. We suggest that these theories would synergistic workgroups. Most leadership of the 1990's which are characterized by using terms as; coaching, facilitating, understanding etc . describe this resulting leadership deportment leaders. The whether men or women are more effective A contemporary leadership argument is female contrasting of traditional descriptors for male or argument focuses upon comparing and traditional leadership models. Our perspective on this behavioral tendencies within various popular gender, but rather is misdirected. The focus should not be on argument is that the focus of the argument asidefor participative experiences upon leadership deportmentgender on the influence of formative formative leadership debate is the issue of which set of workgroup situations. Thus, the crux of this considered best experiences when actualized in leadership is reinforced, above, displayed behaviors which when In the male and female scenarios presented is defined as by the individual Common sense behavior evolve into accepted common sense behaviors individual. One's formative experiences undergirds that which is common or seems natural to an These behaviors lifetime. influences an individual's behavior throughout a common sense which behavior which seems common to one is constitute one's leadership style. However, the common sense It would seem Perhaps here lies the answer to the argument not always common to another. include of leadership development experiences to appropriate for men and women to broaden their range natural. embracing of that which is not common or those shaping influences which foster the ground, executives, because they were breaking new Rosener (1990), cites that the first female of spelled success for men" (p.119). The second wave adhered to many of the 'rules of conduct' that behaviors in because they have abandoned male-dominated female executives, however, are successful abandoned the (Rosene) Whether women have truly favor of their own female-oriented behaviors. is the discussion. A more valuable consideration male-specific outcome behaviors is not up for undergird inclusion of cross-gender experiences which evolution of an individual based upon a broader leadership believe important to developing the participative and foster those formative experiences we abilities in males and females alike. Participative Leadership Patterns characteristics commonly today's participative groups portray Literature suggests that effective leaders of by Some of the qualities made reference to leaders. attributed to formative experiences of female Others' Sharing Power and Information, Enhancing successful leaders are Encouraging Participation, of These qualities are grounded in the types Self-Worth, and Energizing People (Rosener). In contrast, if an in early female socialization. developmental experiences considered common previously asideis akin to a traditional male (as individual's developmental experiencegender decision leadership which advocates participation in discussed), they would have difficulty exhibiting 25-1 4 610 processes when their common sense suggests individuality works best With any workgroupparticipative or otherwisesymbolic leadership style gestures do not work because such facades are diffictdt to maintain when they are in contrast to the basic formative experiences of the individual. This suggests that above all, it is vital that one leads with that which is common, or has become common, through their individual developmental experience. However, dominant participatory leadership qualities (such as coaching, facilitating, encouraging etc.) as stand alone behaviors do not spell success in the participative workgroup environment. In order to be , support, and successful, it is vital to utilize effective communication and interpersonal skills to sustain deliver effective leadership. the and literature categorizes historically, Commuutication SkiUc Traditionally This schema has judged females as effective communication characteristics according to gender. communicators and males as ineffective. We believe that to best benefit from the discussion of the communication literature we need to continue to depart from the gender-specific debate. Rather, we suggest eliminating positive and negative gender-specific references by viewing effective communications as a fimction of the evolution which results from an individual's formative experiences. Communications skills considered here consist of verbal, non-verbal, and interpersonaL Studies by Hyman and Case, cited by Bass, promoted women as better communicators (1990). The female communication style up to this point has been touted as personal and facilitative, whereas the Linguistics professor Tannen male communication style was labeled assertive and authoritative. suggests that certain communication styles may be more appropriate for participatory leaders. For example she refers to a boss who needs a report from a subordinate immediately. *The stereotypical male response would be, have this on my desk by the end of the day.' The stereotypical female would be more Rely to say, Tm sorry to rush you, but do you think you could have this for me by the end of the day?'" (Fierman, 1990, page 118). Tannen would suggest that the leader who has developed effective communication skills and participatory leadership behaviors might say: I appreciate your doing this, I really need it by the end of the day. (Herman, 1990) Bass also noted studies by Hall and Halberstadt that found women to be superior in encoding The successful knowledge at and use of non-verbal and decoding non-verbal cues (1990). communication is a critical dimension to effectively communicate with others. The interpersonal component of communications is fundamental to the success of participatory leaders. As in other debates, gender continues to be the qualifier in the discussion. For example, Bass cites studies by Deaux, Esldlson and Wiley which suggested that women are more likely to seek interpersonal success in groups whereas men are more successful in task accomplishment (1990). A study by Vinacke stated that when allocating resources, women focus on maintaining harmony whereas men concentrate on individual performance (Bass & Stodgill). We suggest that these ccamminication dimensions; verbal, non-verbal, and interpersonal, are grounded in early formative experiences. We further believe that leadership style is evolved from common sense experiencesgender asidewhich °cc:lured during an individual's formative periods. Summary Our discussion has been framed by the leadership needs of participative workgroups. This includes positive aspects of participative management and studies which have indicated differences between genders when comparing effective leadership behaviors. Our first suggestion, based on existing research, is that traditional female formative experiences ground effective participatory leadership skills. Secondly, we suggest that early socialization provides individuals with their formative experiences frequently referred to as common sense. Our third suggestion is that either gender could benefit from the results of experiencing the traditional female socialization. The consequences of this socialization are behaviors which influence As such, we believe that men are able to be effective participative leadership style abilities. participatory leaders when their socialization experiences include ones similar to those traditionally attributed to females. Lacking the opportunity to have the formative experiences of traditional female , the focus of leadership development interventions should be on creating contemporary common sense behaviors. 25-I 5 611 rather, it must We propose that leadership deportment should no longer be attributed to gender, These formative be attributed to the influence of an individual's early formative experiences. experiences must be characterized by a socialization process which encourages, openness, and consensus-building all of which contribute to the contemporary sensitivity, understanding, participatory leadership style. References York, NY; The Free Em. Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & Stodgill's handbook of leadership. New Addison-Wesley Burke, W. W. (1992). Organization development (2nd ed.). Massachusetts: Publishing. Daft, R. L. (1994). Management (3rd ed.). Fort Worth, TX The Dryden Press. 115-118. Fierman, J. (1990, December). Do women manage differently? Fortune, 119-125. Rosener, J. B., (1990). Ways women lead. Harvard Business Review, 11-12, Publishers. Rost, J. C. (1993). Leadership for the twenty-first century. Westport, CT: Praeger 6 25-1 612 Mentoring and Reflection: Enhancing Managerial Skills Susan R Meyer Training by Design This descriptive, impressionistic study of self-report data about mentoring in relation to managerial development consists of analysis of mid-cycle and end- cycle structured telephone interviews with two groups of mentors and protegis in an eighteen month mentoring cycle. The mentoring program was designed to enhance professional growth in the context of a management development program consisting of ten to fifteen days of training over a two year period. This paper describes mentoring relationships over a three year period. It presents anecdotal data gathered in a series of interviews with individuals at the midpoint and the end of mentoring relationships. The data is individualistic and self-report; it paints a picture of what kind of learning went on in these mentoring relationships and what conditions supported that learning. Areas addressed in the analysis included: looking for evidence that mentors and proteges felt that mentoring increased or enhanced the acquisition of knowledge about how to be a better manager; looking for evidence of the conditions of a reflective practicum; and looking for reported learnings that correlated with Sternberg's description of executive or managerial knowledge. Program Overview The Mentoring Project at the New York City Department of Personnel was designed to encourage reflective practice and the sharing of tacit knowledge as a way of developing what Short calls a "culture of experts:' The goal was to enlist a cadre of experienced managers who would make their thinking process accessible to newer managers, facilitating self-reflection and heightened of the program awareness of the unwritten principles of good management. The stated purposes on-the-job applications; gain were to help new managers: transfer skills learned in training to job-related support and career guidance; and feel supported in making a long-term commitment to City government The study described in this paper was conducted both to monitor the on-going progress of mentor-protege relationships and to gather long-term data to better establish and understand the link between mentoring and increased managerial skill. Two groups of mentors and proteges 39 pairs were tracked for this project. Of the first group of 55 paired senior and new managers, remained intact through the 18 month cycle. Of these, 32 could be contacted for interviews at mid -cycle and 25 at the end of the cycle. This data was combined with interview data from 28 of the mentors. In the second cycle, 30 of 37 pairs considered themselves to be intact, although the interview data suggests that many of these pairs were no longer meeting on a regular basis. Of the total number, 25 pairs were interviewed. The same questions were used for all interviews, conducted by different individuals. and second were interviews cycle first the but Questions fell into six categories: timing (frequency of meetings), topics discussed, perceptions about the quality of the relationship, what was learned, evidence of reflection and/or analysis of style/practices, and overall assessment of the process. Data collected over the managerial in categories two years has been analyzed by cycle and as an aggregate. Data was grouped 0 Copyright, Susan R Meyer, 1996 613 representing similar responses to determine trends among mentors and proteg6s. Interpretation was informed by the literature on mentoring and the concepts shaping the design of the program. Participants in this program were enrolled in a managerial certificate program that offered 12 - 15 days of training over an 18 month period. Candidates were screened, then matched with executive-level managers. Mentors were initially selected from a list of attendees at an executive development program. The list was circulated among consultants who had These consultants were asked to provided small group facilitation for executive sessions. recommend individuals they thought were outgoing, clear about their roles as managers and able to share their management philosophy and milts. In addition, those interviewed to be mentors were asked to recommend colleagues who might be interested and good at mentoring. Proteges were recommended by instructors and course managers at the end of the core During the During the first cycle, they were interviewed by telephone. managerial course. second cycle, a written statement of goals for the Project was also requested. The interviews served as the basis for selection and matching. The written statements, in some cases, amplified the interview data, but primarily served to screen out individuals who appeared to have a low level of commitment to the project. Matches were made, in general, on the basis of matching common areas of interest or responsibility and/or matching expressed developmental need from the protégé with expressed area of strength or expertise from the mentor. Most matches were same gender. During the first cycle, age and location were not strong considerations. During the second cycle, it became evident that geography was a more important consideration. The pairs were expected to meet once a month for one hour. Several theories defined the Managerial Certificate Program and the Mentoring Project The model for the mentoring relationship was developed to incorporate the reflective practicum as described by Schon as a vehicle for transmitting professional knowledge. Specific managerial learnings that might be enhanced through mentoring were identified in Sternberg's description of managerial learning and in Quinn's Competing Values Framework. Learning to Manage Through Reflection In organizations, individuals are routinely promoted to or appointed to managerial positions with no training. It is often easy to learn the work of the unit itself; staff traditionally teaches the new manager the work of the unit if the manager comes into the organization from the outside. The manager who has risen from the ranks has a clear grasp of the work, and has probably developed mission, goals some good theories about bow that work could be done better. Knowledge of the The issue that and culture of the organization can be learned from others in the organization concerned the Mentoring Project was who teaches that manager how to integrate this data and develop a personal style of management? How does the neophyte learn to "think hie a manager"? The hardest things to teach new managers are attitude, style and judgment. These and areas are best developed through processes that encourage the manager to be both observant self-reflective. Donald Schon(1987) describes the reflective practicum as the means of transmitting to the new professional. This process calls the application of knowledge professional artistry for individuals in dialogue to make tacit knowledge explicit To determine if this was happening in the mentoring relationships, protégés were asked if mentoring enhanced the development of managerial abilities and responses were analyzed for evidence of reflective thinking. Responses like those below indicated that there was evidence of reflectivity in the mentor-protégé interactions: Teaching me something ... feedback makes me look at myself - develop understanding. A manager is like an artist - a good one has skills and they can be brought out - all I'm doing is bringing out potential 25-2 BEST COPY Mt IBLE 11 L 614 I guess I started to wonder whether I have left behind focusing on supervising There's a a staff and grown in to managing toward department goals. difference between supervising and managing, you know. It was initially thought that mentors and proteges could be brought together with minimal preparation to engage in reflective dialogue. As most of the mentors reported that they had been mentored or that they had learned from observing and discussing work issues with their role models, one initial assumption was that the skill of mentoring came naturally to outstanding indication of managers. Analysis of first year responses demonstrated that there was some reflective processes: One important thing that I learned is to be more objective in my viewing situations, to look at more than one angle. I think it's just to kind of describe a situation - help me sit back and look at the broader picture - help me not get so stressed, but look at things from the other perspective. It's about having an objective person to talk to. It gives (you) the opportunity to step back and look at a situation from the outside. By going back, I realize things that I wouldn't have realized before. I've been able through his guidance to step outside of my function and to assist in getting the work done. He has helped me to focus on an intellectual and detached level so that I can change things for the better. The project team felt that the concept had not been dearly understood by many of the substituting mentors. In the second year, a more thorough orientation addressed this issue by coaching metaphors for the term reflective practicum and by providing examples of our expectation for this kind of behavior. This increased the number of participants who were able to cite examples of reflection on or analysis of managerial practices. The second group most often used the words "sounding board" to describe the nature of their relationship: I used her as a sounding board - bounced ideas off her. r ve learned to have more confidence in what I do here. This example dearly indicated one outcome we hoped for - that in discussing management concepts and ideas, the protege would begin to trust their own instincts and abilities. Other responses indicated proteges struggling to better understand their own practice: He shares his criticisms as well as his positive comments about my qualities as things a manager. ... it seems to be complementary. It has a dimension where are out in practice - kind of a practical level in which I can reflect on. reflecting on what you've done - it's a critical basis (on) which I can better ... evaluate myself. Most of the learning you do is through experience, and if you can share it with people so that they don't have to go through it then it would be worth it. Although one mentor had difficulty seeing idea-testing as fundamental to the mentoring process, he seemed to use the concept 615 advisor. I served more as a sounding-board rather than as a mentor or of making tacit knowledge explicit Another appears to be discussing, with difficulty, the concept learned: in this response to a question about what his protdge Urn ... maybe non- I've done a lot of mentoring of younger staff people. approach issues in their transferable (parts) of my experience. People have to own way. by these responses. The goal of creating a One on-going struggle in the program is underscored but was neither dearly articulated reflective practicum was a strong one for the project manager, fit the mentor's When the concepts of coaching and reflection nor bought into by participants. it higher level of implementation. By the third year, own concept of mentoring, there was a in ways that better fit the thinking of the became clearer how to explain Schon's concepts who were more likely to experience success in using the mentors and also how to select mentors before data could be collected to evaluate model. Unfortunately, the program was disbanded change in this area. Managerial or Executive Knowledge provides a list of specific skills that can be Sternberg's (1988) analysis of managerial knowledge self and decision-making, knowledge about as problem-solving, roughly categorized needs, judgment skills, and situational environment, knowledge about staff capabilities and "What did you learn?" reflect Sternberg's analysis skills. Some of the responses to the question, classification. These include: long-term gains: Balancing short-term losses or inefficiencies against succeed in the City - I guess that hard work and a serious desire are needed to mining corners. that getting the job done is the issue, even if it means Seeking to understand things from other points of view: objective in my viewing One important thing that I learned is to be more situations - to look at more than one angle. achieve the same (I learned) that there are several ways in City government to goal. and she gave me a You're so overwhelmed with day-to-day responsibilities the bigger picture. better perspective about work. She allowed me to see with whom you are working: Knowing the capabilities, interests, and values of those What does personnel Productivity in the City requires different approaches. I think the main thing is how to deal with look at in recognizing people? public personnel discover new skills. How to plan better - how to encourage people to hire. You can't treat everyone the same - in particular a new Finding ways to get around your weaknesses: '2 1 0