DOCUMENT RESUME ED 370 567 IR 055 020 Myers, Robert J.; And Others AUTHOR TITLE A Middle School's Experience with Hypermedia and Problem-Based Learning. PUB DATE 93 NOTE 13p.; In: Visual Literacy in the Digital Age: Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association (25th, Rochester, New York, October 13-17, 1993; see IR 055 055. PUB TYPE Reports Research/Technical (143) Speeches/Conference Papers (150) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Computer Assisted Instruction; Databases; Educational Media; *Hypermedia; Junior High Schools; *Learning Strategies; Middle Schools; Models; Multimedia Instruction; *Problem Solving; Student Attitudes; Student Motivation IDENTIFIERS *Multimedia Materials ABSTRACT This study examined whether the inquiry-based problem solving model supports sustained exploration of a multimedia database. This model contains five steps: (1) analyze the discrepant event from which a problem question is generated; (2) generate questions; (3) gather data; (4) analyze information; and (5) evaluate self. A group of 24 seventh graders were given a discrepant event about the Spaniards and the Aztecs and used a hypermedia database with the domain of Mesoamerican civilization. The desire to know appeared to be ignited by the discrepant event. Most students were engaged, motivated, displayed c-riosity, and had fun. However, there might have been other contribut.'ig factors to student responses. As a result, it is not possible to conclude that the discrepant event inquiry approach provided motivation for sustained learning activities; however, it did appear to be at least one factor that led to a meanirsful learning experience. (Contains 24 references.) (JLB) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** is U.S. OLOAPITMENT OF EDUCATION Office of EcIJcasanaI Research and Improvernenl EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER IERICI C 1h.5 document has been reproduced as recerved Iron, the person or orparnzahon Onginalmg M.n Or Changes have Oeen made 10 improve reproduchon (loamy Ronts ol snew or op.rhons stated°, trnsdoCu rnent do not neCesSahly represent &how OE RI Pos.hon or pohcy A Middle School's Experience with Hypermedia & Problem-Based Learning by Robert Myers Steven L. Purcell Jamie 0. Little William E. Jaber RM 202, War Memorial Hall Virginia Tech Blacksburg, VA 24061-0313 rb -PLIRMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Alipp Walker BEST COPY AVAILABLE 0 TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES 4 INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC).- School's Experience; A Middle and Problem:- with Hypermedia Based Learning Robert J. Myers Steven L. Purcell Jamie 0. Little William E. Jaber multimedia. These include costs in Are times changing? As of lack of terms of time, money, and this writing, at lea_t two states funding. In addition, few people (Texas and California) have have the combination of skills adopted curricular materials based required to develop excellent (or (A First, 1991). This on multimedia multimedia even average) has come about in part because packages. Until recently most and software are newer hardware multimedia systems required two both more powerful and less monitors, special interface cards, (1993), expensive. Mr. James Dezell and an assortment of cables, President of EduQuest, says that players, and software. Until the multimedia is going to make core prices of systems fall, and system instructional software Z9 requirements narrow to one compelling that our students are standard unit, many schools may going to learn more. He also stay on the sidelines. Other suggests multimedia will extremely important issues that dramatically affect how students influence the adoption of learn by creating new knowledge multimedia are consideration of that demands application, how teachers teach and how of view, promotes multiple points students learn. It is possible that eschews engages active learners, the infusion of multimedia into memorization, and is built with the classroom will require cultural tools. abandoning traditional teaching paradigms. For all of the excitement, however, many schools and Multimedia: Perils and Promise teachers may move slowly in using multimedia systems. There are 0 One can encounter many dissuade many reasons that may definitions of the term schools from employing 0 3 multimedia. One definition situations, setting goals, includes a system that combines formulating plans, comparing video, text, sound, animation, and alternative courses of action, graphics all controlled by a judging difficulty, apportioning computer. Hypermedia employs time, and monitoring results" the same electronic forms as (Prawat, 1991, p. 4). multimedia, but allows learners to access information in a There is a wealth of nonsequential fashion. Critiques of literature on developing critical hypermedia usage have mentioned thinking skills, but the answer difficulties in navigation and appears to be that we teach them overloading of short-term memory (Resnick, 1987; Sternberg, 1984). (Conklin, 1987). Heller (1990) Perkins (1986) suggests that we try suggests that a lack of motivation to teach too much content to the or unfocused rambling may also neglect of those tactics needed to occur. become better thinkers. In fact, Perkins avers that good thinking is The purpose of this study an unnatural act. It is unnatural, was to investigate methods that he suggests, because, if left alone, capitalize on the wealth of human thinking tends to manifest information in hypermedia three weaknesses: (1) taking databases, support sustained egocentric approaches that student learning activities, and incorporate biases, (2) suggesting occur in an atmosphere in which problems before defining the students learn significant skills in problems, and (3) treating reflective thinking, and go beyond knowledge as information as the input-recall state, into higher opposed to knowledge as levelf; of thinking. We used an invention. inquiry based problem solving model to create a context for Prawat (1991) says that the sustained student activity. The most prominent technique of model began with the introduction teaching thinking skills is to embed of a discrepant event. We focus on skills into the curriculum or this issue. within the context of specific subject matter domains. This Thinking Skills and method blends an equal balance of Structured Inquiry thinking skills and subject matter. The importance of this approach is How do we get students to solve that learning and thinking are problems, think critically and thought to result from an creatively, make inferences, interaction between a learner and a plan, hypothesize, generate situation rather than something independent solutions, and/or occurring in a person's mind make decisions? These (Greeno, 1989). processes may need supporting activities such as "...defining 4 cognition. All that is needed is a Another useful way of means by which dissonance is creating a context for learning is created in learners. through "situated cognition" (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Discrepant Events Within Inquiry Greeno, 1989). Brown, Collins, and Dugid contend that students need A spark is created with more than abstract concepts and presentation of a puzzling situation canned examples. They suggest or event. Nussbaum and Novick that learning should be conducted (1982) state that in order for in activity situated in real-life accommodation of a new concept social, cultural, and physical to occur, students must first contexts. Research conducted by recognize a problem as well as their the Cognition and Technology Inability to solve it. Students' Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV, 1990) inability is brought about by is a good example of the use of presentation of a "discrepant media (videodisk) to "situate" or event." A discrepant event is "anchor" students within a simply an inexplicable condition, learning environment. statement or situation. The discrepant event creates a state of Having introduced the disequilibrium (or cognitive concept of embedding thinking disFonance as discussed above). skills within the context of subject The key in Nussbaum and matter, we now introduce an Novick's argument is that once inquiry based problem solving students are in a state of model which is preceded by a disequilibrium, they are motivated discrepant event. The model is by "epistemic curiosity" (Berlyne, based on Piaget's (cited in 1965) to reduce the disequilibrium. Chapman, 1988) concept of Nussbaum and Novick (1982) disequilibrium and Festinger's suggest that traditional instruction (1957) concept of cognitive seldom provides for students to dissonance. Festinger (1957) experience cognitive conflict. suggested that individuals strive for internal consistency. When Bruce and Bruce (1992) learners experience inconsistencies, suggest that logic-defying problems psychological discomfort results. often place us in a state of Festinger's theory provides us with disequilibrium. Motivation from this theory: "The existence of the disequilibrium causes dissonance [inconsistency), being questioning, snooping, and psychologically uncomfortable, will searching to reduce uncertainty and motivate the person to try to re-enter a state of equilibrium. reduce the dissonance and achieve Accordingly, Bruce and Bruce offer consonance fconsistencyr (p. 3). an inquiry model to take learners Central to this argument is that through five phases in their quest introduction of new information to reduce disequilibrium: elements that may create cognitive are dissonant with existing (1) Discrepant Event. Students (4) Analyze Information. Students read or are presented a analyze their information to discrepant event. From it, they reach a hypotheis. generate a problem question. (5) Self Evaluation. Last, in a Discrepant events, or situations metacognitive mode, students such as them, have received review the entire process. frequent attention in the social sciences. Costa (1991) states that Hypermedia Data Base the inquiry method purposely We developed a hypermedia creates situations to extend data base incorporating scanned reflective thinking. Massialas, color images, graphics, text, and audio. The domain for the Sprague, & Hurst (1975) offer several devices to get students' prototype was the ancient attention and involvement. Mesoamerican civilizations. The Their suggestion is to use original focus was the Aztec "springboards." Springboards Empire. As the project developed can take such forms as however, the data base expanded to documents, magazine articles, include brief references to other graphs, and visual media. They peoples such as the Mayas, Incas, cite a multimedia unit entitled and Olmecs. This topic was World History Through Inquiry excellent for a seventh grade social that draws from several studies class. Because most disciplines to get students to sources about ancient Mesoamerica examine and discuss issues. are post-Colombian, there are a Massialas et al. also suggest variety of conflicting opinions, using "puzzling documents" interpretations, and thoughts about that lack critical facts and the subject matter. These result conclusions or include from the Spanish destruction of discrepancies. nearly all pre-Colombian recorded (2) Generate Questions. Students history. What we know about create a series of questions that these cultures was recorded by can be answered with a "yes or monks and Indian chroniclers after no" response. Making them the conquest. This background create a yes or no question provided a context-rich causes students to organ;ze their environment for higher-order thoughts. This way the learners thinking, especially in a social are probing for specific studies class. information instead of general, subsuming types of questions. (3) Gather Data. Students gather data to answer questions about important variables and ask hypothetical and causal questions. ruins, the empire would be in when Note. From "That fateful moment chaotic disarray, and the Spanish face" by C. L two civiliiations came face to would control the area. 23,7, p. 69. Mee Jr., 1992, Smithsonian, Copyright 1992 by Smithsonian Institution. Reprinted by permission. Students, assisted by problem solving steps, would generate a The thematic hypermedia problem statement. Massialas, data base was developed around Sprague, and Hurst (1975) suggest and people, deities, places, things, asking questions to generate the with events. Our research began problem definition. Such of the story of Cortés and the end questions might include: expanded the Aztec Empire. It then really about? * What is this story into the life and practices of Aztecs. One possible answer might suggest Practices included their commerce, that disaster struck millions of relations with neighbors, people when the complexities of agriculture, art, architecture, and cultures, societies, and technology especially their proclivity for clashed. human sacrifice and cannibalism. What is the nature of the it As the research continued, problem, or did anything unusual seemed natural to provide a happen? A possible answer is: It background concerning the doesn't make sense that a few men of changing world during the "Age in ships could make a whole Exploration" (the 16th century). It empire fall. expand also seemed appropriate to into the other Mesoamerican Based on an analysis of the peoples because of questions event, an typical problem concerning the origin of all people could btatement might be: How native to the Americas. such a small force of Spaniards changes in the cause such profound by Below Is a Scenario Encountered Aztec culture in such a short time? Students With that, the students are able to In 1519 I. Discrepant Event. begin solving the problem. with Cortés, a Spanish sea captain 550 men (including 32 IL Generating Questions. The crossbowmen, and 13 musketeers) inquiry model provided in the and 16 horses, landed on the software now suggests students the Yucatan Peninsula. This was produce questions that can be empire that area of the Aztec, an answered with a yes or no stretched from central Mexico to appropriate response. Here are the present boundary of examples: Guatemala. Within this area were Were the Spaniards' weapons by 25 million people governed superior to the Aztecs'? capital Montezuma. Montezuma's is it possible that there were city of Tenochtitlan quartered some fewer Aztecs than originally Within two 50,000 Aztec warriors. thought? Montezuma would years, however, would be in be dead, Tenochtitlan Did religious beliefs affect the fortunate to find Donna Marina, a outcome? native who quickly learned the Did Spaniards bring some Spanish language. Cortes also type of disease? enlisted the aid of thousands of Did Spaniards have a Note. From The Course of Mexican-History, superior form of warfare? (p. 127) by M C. Meyer & W. L. Sherman, 1987, New York: Oxford University press. Copyright 1987 by Oxford University Press. III. Gather Data Using the . Reprinted by permission. hypermedia data base, plus other references, students search for local Indians who were glad to find answers to their "yes or no" a way to overthrow Montezuma. questions. At the end of this step, The Spaniards' weapons were they are closer to hypothesizing especially effective against the causes of the discrepant event. Aztecs who were not used to "total Students are not left on their own warfare." The Indians were to wander aimlessly about terrified of armored soldiers hyperspace in search of answers. mounted on horseback. The system contains guides to offer The Aztecs suffered grievously suggestions about the most likely from diseases brought by Spaniards. place to search; there is also a And last, the city of Tenochtitlan "Journal" for record keeping. was easy to blockade and starve into submission. IV. Analyze Information. Students are now in a position to V. Self Evaluation. Following the inquiry based problem solving model, students now evaluate their problem solving strategies. Bruce and Bruce (1992) suggest that developing evaluative skills improves thinking and questioning during future problem solving situations hence, providing for skill transfer. Here is a list of appropriate evaluative questions provided by Fontana, White and Cates (1992, p. 12): 1) Is the data relevant or necessary to proving or disproving the analyze the data and generate a hypothesis? hypothesis or hypotheses. In this 2) Has sufficient data been particular case, their hypothesis collected? might take this form: Cortés was 3) What is the source of each piece extremely lucky; he took advantage of data? Is the source credible? of Aztecs' superstitions and Is it reliable? religious beliefs which indicated he and his men were gods. He was both a facilitator and evaluator. 4) Does any piece of data Researchers used a model by incorporate bias or narrow Massialas, Sprague, and Hurst points of view? (1975) to analyze students' 5) Does each piece of data make a engagement. Here are the persuasive and logical objectives provided by Massialas et argument? al. pertaining to the research % 6) Are stereotypes represented? question: Purpose and Rationale 1) Showing interest. Students are willing to give their attention or This study looked at the have a positive attitude in using following question: Does the the system to resolve discrepant inquiry based problem solving events. Students' attitudes or model support sustained interest may be observed in some exploration of a r lultimedia data of the following ways: "listening, base? being excited about something, coming up after class to talk about Method the issues" (Massialas et al., 1975, p. 149). An extant seventh-grade class of 24 students served as 2) Showing involvement. participants during the week-long Students go beyond the level of just study. Students were divided into showing interest. They commit four groups of six. Assignment of themselves to an activity by using students was not random, so their own initiative to participate. results of this study may not generalize to others of the same age Results and background. Groups were formed by the teacher before arrival Nearly all indicators, of the observers. Although ability facilitator observations, videotape, tracking had been discontinued in audiotape, teacher observations, this particular middle school, this and student questionna!res, class was chosen by the teacher indicated students were motivated because she thought there would be and engaged in sustained activity. the closest match between proposed Students came into the classroom methods and the personality of the and began work without being told class. Students were assigned the to do so. Work continued until the roles of leader, researcher, very last second, then students computer operator, and recorder. hurriedly grabbed their belongings (as if they were about to late) and Means of gathering data left for the next class. consisted of direct observation, videotape, audiotape, post-exercise Students' desire to know questionnaires, and evaluation of appeared to be ignited from the students' products. Each group had discrepant event. Just as the who served as a research assistant literature indicated, it seemed the 4.) share information with the rest discrepant event served as a of the class. springboard to sustained activity. One student in the pilot study said In Group 4 there was one the problem solving sequence was exception to the generally excellent "fun and exciting, just like solving use of the discrepant event. The a mystery." This doesn't mean that facilitator had a particularly the problem solving model was difficult time in getting this group followed to perfection. The to confront the discrepant event students, however, were heavily and develop a problem statement. engaged in the problem solving This difficulty appeared to arise process as soon as they received the from the selection of a group leader discrepant event. The facilitator who maintained that he knew the from Group 2 commented that her answers and did not need to pursue students were motivated and never the matter. Whether the lost interest or seemed bored. recalcitrant student had a history of Group 2's facilitator also reported being combative, or whether the that her group was so proud of discrepant event was not their work that they asked over and challenging enough is unknown. over if they could share their The discrepant events certainly results with the others. Behavioral appeared to be challenging and problems did not exist, and the perplexing to the other groups. group wanted to get through the The teacher did say that Group 4 problem so they could get into was composed of particularly another. strong personalities. This group leader's preconceptions evoked The teacher reported that thoughts of Gardner's (1991) this whole approach exposed suggestion that educators have no students to new worlds of thought idea how pervasive and strong are and approaches to learning. In her initial conceptions, stereotypes, and opinion, the discrepant event scripts that students bring to the approach got the students so classroom. Gardner maintains involved that they wanted to both these preconceptions are difficult to continue the exercise and share refashion or eradicate. notes with each other after this study was over. The teacher Discussion reported that the students were just "full of themselves." By this, she With the exception of Group meant that the students were fully 4's initial difficulty, the students absorbed in the puzzling situation were engaged, motivated, displayed and wanted to keep working at curiosity, and had fun. It would be refining their hypotheses. She said fair to question, however, whether they bounced ideas off of each other there were other contributing outside of class. C 'ring the week factors to students' active after the exercise, they still wanted engagement. For example, the novelty effect may certainly have 1 0