DOCUMENT RESUMF IR 015 667 ED 349 936 Troutner, Joanne AUTHOR The Historical Evolution of Educational Software. TITLE PUB DATE 91 NOTE 19p. Descriptive Reports Historical Matarials (060) PUB TYPE (141) MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. EDRS PRICE Autuinstructional Aids; *Computer Assisted DESCRIPTORS Instruction; Computer Simulation; *Computer Software Development; Courseware; Educational Technology; *Educational Trends; Elementary Secondary Education; History; Interactive Video; Microcomputers; Multimedia Instruction; Teaching Machines Sunburst Communications; Tom Snyder Productions IDENTIFIERS ABSTRACT This paper establishes the roots of computers and automated teaching in the field of psychology and describes Dr. S. L. F, Skinner's Pressey's presentation of the teaching machine; B. teaching machine; Meyer's steps in composing a program for the automated teaching machine; IBM's beginning research on automated courses and the development of the 1500 instructional system; Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operation (PLATO); the 1970s, the era of the microchip, the microcomputer, computer assisted instruction, interactive video programs, computer simulations, and tool software; and the 1980s and 1990s refinement of the software and the development of CD-ROM. The development of two software companies, Sunburst Communications and Tom Snyder Productions, is used to explain the maturation process of simulation software. Several future trends are identified: (1) the use of multimedia will expand rapidly; (3) preservice (2) the use of telecommunications will explode; teacher education programs will change to supply new teachers with (4) the capabilities to make effective use of available technology; the collar,..P.1 of educational software publishers into fewer companies will continua; and (5) students will benefit from the infusion of technology into the educational process. (Contains 11 references.) (ALF) *********************************************************************** made Aepruuuctions supplied by LORS are tne best tnat can be 3C from the original document. *********************************************************************** U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 0 This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it o Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality Points of view or opinions stated in this docu- . ment do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy The Historical Evolution of Educational Software Joanne Troutner Tippecanoe School Corporation Running head: EVOLUTION OF SOFTWARE "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Joanne Troutner TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC).- BEST COPY AVAILABLE Evolution of Software ©1991 Joanne J. Troutner 1 The Historical Evolution of Educational Software Introduction: Early Usage The search for acceptable educational software began long before the current proliferation of microcomputers into the K - 12 educational setting. The concept of computers and automated teaching finds its roots in the field of psychology. Dr. S. L. Pressey exhibited and discussed an early version of a teaching machine at the meetings of American Psychological Association in 1924 and 1925. The concept took the form of a simple machine which gave and scored tests as well as teaching. Pressey felt that "rather than stultifying education, such mechanical aids should free the teacher from unnecessary burdens and leave her free for those inspirational and thought-stimulating activities which a--e, presumably, the real function of the teacher"(Glaser, 1960, p. 24). The machine would present a multiple choice question through a window; the student would press an answer key. Only when the correct key was pressed did the user receive a new question. A student who provided the right answer to a certain question would be provided with one sequence of questions thereafter; a student who gave the wrong answer would indicate a lack of familiarity with the content and would be given a more augmented list of questions and answers (Glaser, 1960). This is the first glimpse of educational software is seen in the literature. 0 Evolution of Software ©1991 Joanne J. Troutner 2 A generation later, B.F. Skinner discussed the concept of a teaching machine. Skinner's machine required that the student compose his response rather than select it from a set of alternatives. In acquiring the necessary behavior students were led through a series of small steps which moved the student closer to the desired end-product behavior. Skinner did not believd that the machine and its program or software actually taught. He simply viewed the combination as a laborsaving device because it could bring one competent programmer in contact with an indefinite number of students. Skinner viewed the machine as a private tutor for students. He pointedly emphasized that the success of the machine depended on the quality of the program or software.1 From Skinner, the evolution of educational software progresses to Meyer, who in 1959 described three major steps involved in composing a program for an automated teaching machine. From a curriculum specialist's point of view, the first step was to delineate the field or subject to be taught. This meant the terms, theories, facts, concepts, and principles of the subject needed to be collected. These would serve as the answers for questions developed for the program. The second step was to deterrpine the learner's entry level skills in that subject. The third step was to arrange the subject matter into a logical order which would promote rapid learning and long term retention. Skinnerian psychologists, behaviorists, and psychologists with a behaviorist orientation view Evoluti, z of Software ©1991 Joanne J. Troutner 3 this same three step process in the terms of various forms of stimulus-response connections (Carr, 1960). IBM research was also being done in 1959 to develop an automated courses which would teach stenotyping, statistics, and German. The program for the stenotyping course was characterized by the following operations: The word to be coded is presented to the student. 1. The student keys the response into the keyboard. 2. The computer checks the answer and indicates where the 3. student is correct or incorrect. If the answer is correct a new item is presented to the student 4. or if the answer is incorrect the same item appears, as decided by the branching logic in the program.2 After a lesson is completed the student is asked if he wishes to 5. continue. During the query, a new lesson is developed by the computer combining questions from a set of new items and a set of items the student has missed. The programs for the statistics and German courses follow much the same pattern. Conclusions from this research led to the decision that computer teaching was feasible, branching logic must be included, automatic error analysis would allow for immediate updating of the curriculum, and the superb motivational properties of the computer should not be minimized (Uttal, 1962). Evo hitt ,n of Software ©1991 Joanne J. Troutner 4 The growth of teaching machines and programmed teaching continues throughout this time period. Evidence can be seen in the Education Index, which first used these two terms in the July, 1959 - June, 1961 volume. Here the number of articles about teaching machines is more than those indexed on programmed teaching. However, that is the only biennium which illustrates that trend. In the 1963-1965 volume, the number of articles on programmed teaching rose to 313 while the number indexed on teaching machines was at 29. This pattern points to a trend: there is an increase in the amount of research and writing on software (Corey, 1967). Discussions and work on teaching machines continued. However, around the middle to lath 1960's the term changed to computer- assisted instruction or CAI. In 1966, IBM announced the development of the first computer system designed with education in mind, the 1500 instructional system. This machine contained an audio system, a cathode ray tube (CRT) display with light pen, a picture projector, and a typewriter keyboard. These machines were used in a research project conducted at the Brentwood Elementary School in East Palo Alto, California. Here instruction in mathematics and reading was done with 100 first grade students. During this study the concepts of individualized drill-and-practice systems as well as tutorial systems were studied. In addition, a third level of interaction, dialogue systems, was also used. Issues raised by the study were (1) computer Evolution of Software ©1991 Joanne J. Troutner 5 technology would impose a rigid, impersonalized curriculum on students, (2) widespread use of computer technology would lead to excessive standardization of education, and (3) the place of individuality and human freedom would be threatened by the use of technology in education (Suppes, 1968). Another aspect of computer-assisted instruction evolving during this era was PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operation). Invented at the University of Illinois and debuted in the summer of 1960, this technology is thought of by most current technology educators as the beginning of educational computer software. Thirty courses for elementary school, high school, and college students as well as college instructors were available. Working on PLATO the student saw only a small television screen and a keyboard. The student did not see the computer, slide selector, and storage device needed to make the PLATO system operate. The system had the ability to provide tutorial instruction, inquiry logic, and research. One illustration has the PLATO system show a film on a chemical concept and then guide the student through a series of 32 questions on the film's content. The student may progress at his own rate, ask for additional help, and branch through the questions in a variety of ways (Trippon, 1968). Recent Uses, The jump into the 1970's and the era of microchips and microcomputers has brought computer-assisted instruction to yet Evolution of Software ©1991 Joanne J. Troutner 6 another level. The early 1970's still had programmed learning taking place on expensive minicomputers. With the invention of the Apple computer in 1978 and the Apple lie in the early 1980's, schools could begin to afford microcomputers. Now the rush for educational software began. Educational software was rapidly divided into six categories. Drill and practice programs used the computer much as a flash card. These programs were built on the premises used in the early teaching machines and the programmed learning done throughout the 1960's. Tutorial programs were designed to teach a concept and provided comprehension questions. Again, this category of software found its origins in the days of teaching machines and programmed learning. The IBM experiments in the 1960's illustrated many of the ideas and concepts found in this category of software. Simulation programs were used to enable the students to interact with realistic situations as they were developing thinking skills. Here the jump in graphics capabilities and memory requirements of the microcomputer proved useful. Little simulation software is found in the 1950's and 1960's because of hardware constraints. Interactive video programs were yet a fourth category of educational software. These programs used a computer to control a video source or sources as well as intersperse computer graphics and text. PLATO programs were the early forerunner of this type of educational software. Utility programs were classed as those Evolution of Software ©1991 Joanne J. Troutner 7 programs which helped a teacher produce learning tools for students. Crossword puzzle makers, word searches, and the like fall into this category. These programs did not appear in the early days of teaching machines because of the cost factor of hardware. The sixth category was that of tool software, i.e. word processors, spreadsheets, databases, and the like. Here students and teachers used the tools to help them with daily work and assignments. The advent of lower priced computers and printers has made the use in this category increase astronomically (Troutner, 1983). The late 1980's and the early 1990's have seen the refinement of the software in the six categories. Drill and practice software has become much more sophisticated. The spelling and content errors which were accepted in the late 1970's simply because the software existed are no longer tolerated today. In fact, today often drill and practice software is scorned as an inappropriate use of computer time. The issue of screen design has 'become much more important in this group of software as well as the reward system and the branching component of the help screens (Bork, 1985). Also a feature called scaffolding is being seen. This coaching feature provides help for the students in the form of hints, suggestions, and performance evaluations (Lieberman, 1991). Tutorial programs are still used in some instances; but, the distinction between tutorial and tool software seems to be blurring. With the increased memory, graphics, and sound capabilities of Evolution of Software ©1991 Joanne J. Troutner 8 today's microcomputers, teachers have come to expect a very polished product. One example is the Money, Time, and Measurement series available from IBM. These programs have a digitized speech component which allows for kindergarten and first grz.%fle students to use the program with ease. The same program guides the students through learning about measuring by units, inches, and half-inches. And, the same program contains a graph making utility, which allows students to develop and print bar, pie, and line graphs of their own information. Simply tracing the history of an educational software firm such as Sunburst Communications or Tom Snyder Productions provides the best explanation of the maturation process of simulation software. Sunburst Communications started publishing simulations in 1981 with The Eagtoa. In the ensuing ten years, Sunburst Communications has become one of the primary developers of simulations. In 1990, the company split into three divisions- - Sunburst Elementary and Middle School, Sunburst High School, and WINGS for Learning. The reason for the split was that the complement of software available was too large for one group of employees to be able to adequately support.3 Tom Snyder Productions began with the publication of four simulations currently used with the Macmillan social studies textbooks and has grown into a company publishing seventeen simulation programs in the space of less than seven years. 4J i