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Typeset by Refi neCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Printed by MPG Printgroup, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Contents About the author xi Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering xiii Preface xvii Part I Types, processing and characterization 1 1 Introduction to environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Defi ning environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites 4 1.3 Environmentally friendly polymer matrices 5 1.4 Environmentally friendly nanofi llers/reinforcements 6 1.5 Processing of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites 7 1.6 Solution- blending and i n- situ polymerization 9 1.7 Melt-blending 10 1.8 Performance and potential of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites 20 1.9 References 21 2 Environmentally friendly polymer matrices for composites 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Mechanisms of biodegradation and classifi cation of biodegradable polymers 25 2.3 Biodegradable polymers derived from renewable sources 26 2.4 Biodegradable polymers derived from fossil- fuel resources 35 2.5 Summary: using biodegradable polymers as matrices 39 2.6 References 39 v © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 vi Contents 3 Environmentally friendly nanofi llers as reinforcements for composites 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Nanoclays as reinforcements 42 3.3 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as reinforcements 55 3.4 References 67 4 Techniques for characterizing the structure and properties of polymer nanocomposites 74 4.1 Introduction 74 4.2 X-ray diffraction (XRD) and small- angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) 74 4.3 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron tomography 76 4.4 Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) 79 4.5 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and focused- ion beam SEM (FIB-SEM) 82 4.6 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) 84 4.7 Optical microscopy (OM) and polarized optical microscopy (POM) 85 4.8 Infrared (IR) spectroscopy 86 4.9 Other techniques 87 4.10 References 87 5 Environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using polymer matrices from renewable sources 89 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)-based polymer nanocomposites 89 5.3 Polyalkanoate (PHA)-based polymer nanocomposites 103 5.4 Starch- based polymer nanocomposites 108 5.5 Cellulose- based polymer nanocomposites 124 5.6 Chitosan- based polymer nanocomposites 127 5.7 Protein- based polymer nanocomposites 132 5.8 References 139 6 Environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using polymer matrices from fossil fuel sources 157 6.1 Introduction 157 6.2 Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS)-based polymer nanocomposites 157 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Contents vii 6.3 Poly[(butylene succinate)-co- adipate] (PBSA)- based polymer nanocomposites 170 6.4 Poly(ε -caproloctone) (PCL)-based polymer nanocomposites 177 6.5 Poly(butylene adipate- co-terephthalate) nanocomposites 194 6.6 Nanocomposites of other biodegradable polyesters 198 6.7 References 198 7 Processing of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposite foams for packaging and other applications 208 7.1 Introduction 208 7.2 Preparation, characterization and properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposite (EFPN) foams 209 7.3 References 219 Part II Properties 223 8 Tensile properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 225 8.1 Introduction 225 8.2 Tensile properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites (EFPNCs) using clay reinforcements 226 8.3 Tensile properties of EFPNCs using carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 253 8.4 References 263 9 Dynamic mechanical properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 269 9.1 Introduction 269 9.2 Dynamic mechanical properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using clay reinforcements 270 9.3 Dynamic mechanical properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 286 9.4 References 292 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 viii Contents 10 Thermal stability and fl ammability of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 295 10.1 Introduction 295 10.2 Thermal stability of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using clay reinforcements 296 10.3 Thermal stability of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 316 10.4 Fire resistant properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 319 10.5 References 323 11 Barrier properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 328 11.1 Introduction 328 11.2 Gas barrier properties 329 11.3 Water vapor permeability and water swelling behavior 340 11.4 References 343 12 Crystallization behavior, kinetics and morphology of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/ carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 346 12.1 Introduction 346 12.2 Isothermal and non- isothermal crystallization kinetics 347 12.3 Crystallization of clay- reinforced polymer nanocomposites 351 12.4 Crystallization of carbon nanotube (CNT)-reinforced polymer nanocomposites 375 12.5 References 380 13 Biodegradation behavior of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 385 13.1 Introduction 385 13.2 Biodegradation behavior of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using clay reinforcements 386 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Contents ix 13.3 Biodegradable behavior of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites using carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 409 13.4 References 412 14 Rheological properties of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites (EFPNCs) using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 415 14.1 Introduction 415 14.2 Dynamic oscillatory shear measurements 416 14.3 Steady shear measurements 437 14.4 Elongation fl ow rheology 445 14.5 References 447 15 Electrical and thermal conductivity of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites (EFPNCs) using biodegradable polymer matrices and clay/ carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforcements 450 15.1 Introduction 450 15.2 Electrical conductivity 451 15.3 Thermal conductivity 461 15.4 References 462 Part III Summary 465 16 Applications, environmental impact and future development of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites (EFPNCs) 467 16.1 Introduction 467 16.2 Applications of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites 467 16.3 Assessing the environmental impact of environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites 471 16.4 Current challenges facing environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites 472 16.5 Future trends 475 16.6 References 476 Index 479 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013