ENVIRONMENTALISM AND ISLAM: A STUDY OF MUSLIM WOMEN IN THE U.S. By Jumana Z. Vasi A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Resource Policy and Behavior School of Natural Resources and the Environment The University of Michigan December 2008 Thesis Committee: Professor Dorceta Taylor, Chair Professor Paul Mohai © Jumana Vasi 2008 Acknowledgements This thesis is a result of years of support and encouragement from my husband and best friend, James Abston, and a lifetime of love from my parents, Zoher and Zoreida Vasi. I must also thank Professor Paul Mohai and Dr. Joachim Bruess for providing invaluable advice on survey design, statistical analysis, and research methods. Finally, I offer my heartfelt and unending gratitude to my Advisor and Committee Chair, Professor Dorceta Taylor who helped me develop a nebulous idea into a research project worthy of publication. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction: Muslims in the United States p. 1 Chapter 2: Islam's Environmental Ethic p. 47 Chapter 3: Pro-Environmental Behaviors p. 80 Chapter 4: Research Methods and Sample Profile p. 119 Chapter 5: Results p. 148 Chapter 6: Conclusion p. 186 Appendix A. p. 195 Bibliography p. 204 Abstract Although it may come as a surprise to many Westerners, there is a solid foundation for an environmental ethic within the Islamic tradition. However, Islamic environmental values have not translated into much visible environmental activism from the Muslim community living in the U.S. This study was conducted to gain a better understanding of existing levels of Muslim environmental behavior, both individually and communally. This paper provides an overview of Muslim history in the U.S., describes the religious basis for a unique Islamic environmental ethic, and analyzes the surveys from snowball sample of 330 Muslim women living in the U.S. Results show significant differences between sociodemographic traits and Pro-Environmental Behaviors, Environmental Activism, Outdoor Activities, and Mosque Activism. Chapter 1 Introduction: Muslims in the United States For more than thirty years, environmentalists have leveraged various spiritual and religious traditions to advance environmental awareness, concern, behavior, and activism. In this quest, Islam has been largely ignored. This is more due to Western misconceptions about Islam than the lack of an established Islamic value system regarding the environment. Many scholars have analyzed the theological roots of Islamic environmental values (Ammar, 2000; Haq, 2001; Masri, 1992; Nasr 2001), but few discuss the environmental behavior of Muslims (Rice 2006). My research attempts to add to this field of study by exploring how Muslims in the U.S. participate in environmental behaviors.1 This paper will analyze possible Islamic influences on the environmental ethic of U.S. Muslims, then will survey actual behavior to uncover any unique patterns. The results of this study will provide U.S. environmentalists with an additional way of communicating issues and gaining support with people of color while also helping Muslims 1 This study uses the term “environment” to refer to the place in which people live, work, and recreate. Environmental attitudes are the beliefs and values about the environment. Environmental behaviors are those that have direct impacts on the environment (such as recycling, outdoor activities, etc.). Muslim Environmentalism 1 understand how to increase their community’s role in the influential environmental movement. Research Objectives This thesis explores how American Muslims conceptualize Islamic environmental values and how they implement them in their daily lives. This will be discussed in three ways. First this study will provide an overview of Muslims in the United States; then will discuss the environmental ethic found within Islam. Finally, this paper will analyze the results of a regional survey of U.S. Muslim women that explores their self-reported environmental behaviors. Why is this study important? Although I received immense support from the Muslim community regarding this project, I often faced the question – “Why should Muslims focus on environmental problems - don’t they have more pressing issues to worry about?” The terrorist attack of 9/11 led to wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and resulted in the U.S. Patriot Act. Many American Muslims feel their primary efforts should be focused on voicing their disapproval of these policies. Other Muslims believe their priority should be on building a cohesive Muslim community with a special emphasis on bridging the Muslim Environmentalism 2 gap between African American and Middle Eastern/South Asian Muslims.2 Still others feel Muslims’ primary objective should be to transform public misperceptions that all Muslim religious groups have terrorist tendencies and that all Muslims are fanatical. With such critical issues taking primacy in inter-Muslim debate, it is understandable that few U.S. Muslims feel an urgent calling to take on environmental issues. Nevertheless, the alarming increase of anti-Muslim sentiment since 9/11 highlights the need for Muslims to become more visible as social activists and philanthropists to counteract the image of Muslims as terrorists. Such Muslim participation will help minimize the promulgation of anti-Muslim policies and programs. To accomplish these tasks, Muslims must take leadership roles on a variety of national and local issues, not just those pertaining directly to Muslims. It would be a mistake for Muslims to ignore environmental activism. Environmental organizations are taking a stand on a number of social policies that will significantly impacts Muslims. The ongoing controversy within the Sierra Club about the group’s position on immigration illustrates environmental organizations’ important role in American politics3. As anti-immigration advocates attempt to take control 2The use of these terms is controversial and imperfect. I will address this issue later in the paper. 3 The Sierra Club has debated taking a stand on immigration as part of its environmental advocacy since the late 1960s, going so far as to commission a book, “The Population Bomb,” by Paul Erlich. (http://www.sierraclub.org/population/history.asp). This spurred the Zero Population Growth group (which changed its name to the Population Connection ) (Davis 2004). These groups advocate restricting population growth to protect U.S. resources. Since U.S. birth rates have stabilized in the post baby-boom Muslim Environmentalism 3 of the Sierra Club board, it is clear the lack of minority participation impacts how the organization defines its priorities and policies. Muslim participation in such environmental organizations helps ensure that Islamic viewpoints are included in debates concerning important issues. Muslims in the United States There is no universally agreed upon population estimate for the number of Muslims living in the United States (Smith The Pew Research Center conducted a nationwide survey in 2007 that showed .8%4 (2.35 million individuals) of the total U.S. population report they are Muslims (p.9). U.S. Muslims are a unique population – they are a heterogeneous group with representatives from many countries, speaking many different languages, bringing together many different customs. This group is struggling to find a cohesive identity within the United States, and before delving into an understanding of U.S. Muslim environmental ethics and activism, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of Muslim history in the U.S. This chapter will provide a historical overview and will summarize the current social, religious, and political characteristics of major Muslim groups in this country. years, these groups believe the best way to minimize population growth in the U.S. is to limit immigration. 4 This percentage is calculated based on estimates calculated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the 2007 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. Muslim Environmentalism 4 American Muslims come from every ethnic and racial background and every class. Some Muslims have been in this country for generations, while others arrived within the past few years. Muslims are involved in every aspect of U.S. life – they are business executives, taxi drivers, lawyers, cashiers, scientists, janitors, teachers, and factory workers. Muslims belong to a variety of sects, brotherhoods, and schools of thought. Some Muslims are very religious while others consider themselves to be “cultural” Muslims. Despite these ethnic, cultural, socioeconomic, and religious differences, all Muslims believe in basic Islamic precepts known as the five pillars of Islam. The pillars instruct Muslims to: 1. Acknowledge there is only one God (known in Arabic as Allah) and that Muhammad is His Prophet 2. Pray five daily prayers (salaat) in the prescribed manner, at the prescribed times 3. Fast from dawn to sunset (saum) for 30 days during the holy month of Ramadan 4. Give alms (zakat) to the needy 5. Make at least one pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca Muslims believe Islam is the religion sent by God to validate Jewish and Christian messages (via the Torah and Gospel) and also provide a Muslim Environmentalism 5