Environmental Science Toward a Sustainable Future Richard T. Wright Dorothy F. Boorse Twelfth Edition ISBN 10: 1-292-02084-9 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02084-6 Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk © Pearson Education Limited 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affi liation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN 10: 1-292-02084-9 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02084-6 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Printed in the United States of America 1111222332580369258031999995399931 P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y Table of Contents 1. Economics, Politics, and Public Policy Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 1 2. Science and the Environment Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 29 3. Basic Needs of Living Things Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 53 4. Populations and Communities Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 81 5. Ecosystems: Energy, Patterns, and Disturbance Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 109 6. Wild Species and Biodiversity Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 139 7. The Value, Use, and Restoration of Ecosystems Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 169 8. The Human Population Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 199 9. Population and Development Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 229 10. Water: Hydrologic Cycle and Human Use Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 255 11. Soil: The Foundation for Land Ecosystems Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 283 12. The Production and Distribution of Food Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 309 13. Pests and Pest Control Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 339 I 334445555666914704791453731533371 14. Energy from Fossil Fuels Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 365 15. Renewable Energy Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 393 16. Nuclear Power Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 417 17. Environmental Hazards and Human Health Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 443 18. Global Climate Change Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 471 19. Atmospheric Pollution Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 505 20. Water Pollution and Its Prevention Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 543 21. Municipal Solid Waste: Disposal and Recovery Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 573 22. Hazardous Chemicals: Pollution and Prevention Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 593 23. Sustainable Communities and Lifestyles Richard T. Wright/Dorothy Boorse 617 Index 641 II Economics, Politics, and Public Policy Learning objectives 1. Economics and the Environment: Describe how economic activity relates to environmental goods and services, and differentiate between green and brown An observer looks out over the Benxi Iron and Steel Group in Liaoning, China. economies. 2. Resources in a Sustainable Econ- omy: Summarize the components B of the wealth a nation draws y all measures, China has become the economic giant of the early 21st cen- on to establish and maintain tury. Take your pick: umbrellas, toys, shoes, appliances, electronics, souve- an economy, and identify new nirs, clothes—chances are that they were made in China. China has become efforts to measure true economic the factory to the world. The Chinese economy has doubled in the past decade, progress. growing at close to 10% per year. In contrast, the U.S. economy grew only 2% per 3. Environmental Public Policy: year over the same period. A new Chinese middle class numbers between 100 mil- Explain the kinds of policies lion and 150 million. Middle-class Chinese citizens commonly own a car and an employed to regulate the use of apartment and have opportunities to travel and purchase pricey consumer goods. natural resources and deal with With a population of 1.35 billion, China has a huge pool of labor. Now that the ex- pollution, and describe a typical treme control of private life is a thing of the past, people are able to choose where policy life cycle. they live, work, and travel. Millions of rural Chinese move to urban centers each 4. Benefit-Cost Analysis of Environ- year, attracted by jobs created by factories that spring up almost overnight. Chinese mental Public Policy: Discuss how schools have created a workforce with a literacy rate that is over 95%. Because of benefit-cost analysis is applied to the accelerating pace of cultural life, children are now guiding their parents into the environmental policy regulations, realities of modernity. Traditions are being overthrown by the Internet, by the fierce and give examples of the impact drive to learn English, and by the social mobility that accompanies the of regulations. economic boom. 5. Politics and the Environment: toxic air. There are clear signs that China’s race Assess the role played by to achieve economic superpower status carries with partisan politics in recent it some costs that go well beyond a stretching of environmental public policy. From Chapter 2 of Environmental Science: Toward a Sustainable Future, Twelfth Edition. Richard T. Wright, Dorothy F. Boorse. Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Economics, Politics, and Public Policy Figure 1 Smog in Linfen, China. The city is re- puted to have the worst air in China. the social fabric. Seven Chinese cities are among the “10 most tries were encouraged to develop their resources relatively free polluted places” in the world, according to the World Health of the restraints of central planning. The booming economy has Organization. The air is loaded with sulfur dioxide from coal- also put great power in the hands of the local governments and burning power plants and coal stoves, and acid rain costs some industries and has enabled them to flaunt existing environmental $4.3 billion annually in crop damage. Up to 750,000 premature laws and policies. China does have its Ministry of Environmental deaths a year are believed to be traceable to air pollution. In the Protection, similar to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency city of Linfen in Shangxi province, the hospital treats countless (EPA), but the country is so large that the ministry has been un- numbers of patients with respiratory disease each day. The city able to keep up with the need for enforcement. Recently, is dotted with coke ovens, coal-processing plants, factories, and the Chinese government has been turning to international a coal-fired power plant (Fig. 1). It has been at the top of China’s nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and has encouraged pollution charts for years. One of its hamlets, Beilu, is known as concerned citizens to form homegrown NGOs that focus atten- “the cancer village” because of the extremely high death rate of tion on pollution and other environmental issues. At least 2,000 those 55 and older. such groups are now registered, and they are beginning to make a difference. Typically, a group—like Green Camel Bell in the toxic Water. Xiao Sizhu, a farmer in the village of western Chinese city of Lanzhou—identifies a case of blatant Xiaojiadian, died at 55 of esophageal cancer. In an interview pollution by some factory, documents the pollution, and reports shortly before his death, Xiao spoke of swimming and fishing in it to the central government. Green Camel Bell was successful the tributary of the Yellow River that runs through the village. in shutting down more than 30 factories dumping wastes into However, he says, “Now I never go close to the water because it tributaries of the Yellow River. smells awful and has foam on top.” One oncologist calls the area “the cancer capital of the world” because of esophageal and bottom Line. China’s example demonstrates that eco- stomach cancer rates that are 25 times higher than the national nomic growth can lift millions out of poverty and establish a average. The Yellow River itself is being sucked dry by irrigation country’s strong place in the world market. But when this growth projects stemming from some 20 dams, and the remaining water is at the cost of natural resources and the health of many of its is grossly polluted with sewage and industrial wastes. Three people, it is clearly unsustainable. The economic development chemical spills in 2006 turned the Yellow River red, and another happening in China has already taken place in the industrialized spill turned it white. More than 500 million rural Chinese are countries of Japan and the West, but in these countries, pollu- forced to use water that is contaminated by human and industrial tion has been addressed by environmental laws and regulations. waste; only 20% of wastewater receives any treatment. The Chinese example shows us that economic growth must be accompanied by the development and enforcement of just and environmentaL PoLicy. The Chinese economy effective environmental public policies. has flourished in large degree because of the decentralization of We look first at economics and its connections to the natural power in the 1980s, when local governments and private indus- environment. 2 Economics, Politics, and Public Policy 1 Economics and the Environment very activity creates. A strong relationship exists between the level of development of a nation and the effectiveness of its Economics is the social science that deals with the produc- environmental public policies. Figure 2 shows three patterns tion, distribution, and consumption of goods and services that describe relationships between various environmental and with the theory and management of economies or problems and per capita (per individual in the population) economic systems. Because economic goods and services income levels. are usually connected to—and indeed depend on—en- vironmental goods and services, economics needs to be • Many problems decline (for example, sickness due to in- grounded in an understanding of the biological and physi- adequate sanitation or water treatment) as income levels cal world. Simply put, no environmental goods and serv- rise, because the society decides to apply the resources ices, no economy. available—usually from taxes—to address the problems with effective technologies. • Some problems increase and then decline (for exam- Relationships Between Economic ple, urban air pollutants like sulfur dioxide, particulate Development and the Environment matter, and carbon monoxide) when the serious conse- In a human society, an economy is the system of exchanges quences of the problem are recognized and public policies of goods and services worked out by members of the society. are developed to address them. Goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed • Increased economic activity causes some problems to in- as people make economic decisions about what they need crease without any clear end in sight (for example, sub- and want and what they will do to become players in the urban sprawl, municipal wastes, and CO emissions). 2 system—what they might provide that others would need The key to solving all of these problems brought on by and want. As societies develop, economic activity as- economic activity is the development of effective public poli- sumes increasingly broader dimensions, with increasingly cies and institutions. When this does not happen, environ- pervasive impacts on the whole society. Furthermore, an mental degradation and human disease and death are the unregulated economy can make intolerable inroads into inevitable outcomes. What is happening today in China is a natural resources. In particular, during the latter part of sad case in point. To understand this relationship better, let the 19th century in the United States, private enterprise us look at how economic systems work. had unrestrained access to forests, grazing lands, and mineral deposits. This unsustainable exploitation of re- sources began to be addressed at the turn of the century, Economic Systems as government rules and regulations imposed necessary limits. Economic systems are social and legal arrangements peo- Fortunately, economic activity in a nation can also ple construct in order to satisfy their needs and wants and provide the resources needed to solve the problems that this improve their well-being. Economic systems range from A Figure 2 Environmental problems and per capita Problems Decline income. Some of the most serious environmental problems can Problems Increase be improved with income growth; other problems get worse and m Then Decline e then improve, while some problems just worsen. bl o Pr al nt e m n o vir n E of y sit n e Int B C Problems Increase $200 $2,000 $20,000 Economic Development (Per Capita Income) 3 Economics, Politics, and Public Policy Figure 3 Classical view of economic a c “ Emaacrfcorapotonciniwttevoaoy)mlir. ts(aiby crole .ufa etcpLh tar aieonvr dirdttohu y(wrc neitnaseio)vt uenoarl”lnaev dlme( b rspeeo rtnstohottdesou umrccccoie rtgncssr)su e,(t ltielaotanrupb tf oailgnorrr,rgw eoa ew tnohnd)f e. H o u s e h o l d s $ P aiGd ofooCdr OsG NaonoSddUs SM aePnrdvTi IcSOeeNsrv ices Businesses PRODUCTION Labor Capital $ Paid for Labor Land FACTORS OF PRODUCTION the communal barter systems of primitive societies to the or change jobs. This system was most prominent during the current global economy, which is so complex that it defies 20th century in the communist regimes of the Soviet Union description. In the organized societies of today’s world, and its satellites and in Mainland China and some smaller two kinds of economic systems have emerged: the centrally Asian countries. It proved to be a disaster, both economically planned economy, characteristic of dictatorships, and the and environmentally. The failure of the centrally planned free-market (or capitalist) economy, characteristic of de- economy in the former Soviet Union led to economic chaos mocracies. in the countries that it once comprised or dominated. North In any kind of economy, there are basic components Korea, Cuba, and a few African countries are the last to re- that determine the economic flow of goods and services. tain this economic model. Classical economic theory considers land (natural resources), labor, and capital as the three elements that constitute the The Market Decides. In a pure free-market economy, the “factors of production.” Economic activity involves the market itself determines what will be exchanged. Goods and circular flow of money and products, as shown in Figure 3. services are offered in a market that is free from government Money flows from households to businesses as people pay interference. The system is completely open to competition for goods and services and from businesses to households and the interplay of supply and demand. If supply is lim- as people are paid for their labor. Labor, land, and capital ited relative to demand, prices rise; if there is an oversupply, are invested in the production of goods and services by busi- prices fall because people and corporations will economize nesses, and the products provided by businesses are “con- and pay the lowest price possible. The whole system is in sumed” by households. private hands and is driven by the desire of people and busi- nesses to acquire goods, services, and wealth as they act in The Rulers Decide. The cycles shown in Figure 3 apply to their self-interest. All “players” have free access to the mar- both kinds of economic systems in existence today; the two ket. Competition spurs efficiency as inferior products and systems differ mostly in how economic decisions are made. In services are forced out of the market. People can make in- a centrally planned economy, the rulers make the basic deci- formed decisions about their purchases because there is suf- sions regarding what and how much will be produced where ficient information about the benefits and harms associated and by whom. The government owns or manages most in- with economic goods. The free-market economic system is dustries, and the workers often lack the freedom to choose thought to be at its best when left completely alone. 4 Economics, Politics, and Public Policy The Role of Governments. The preceding discussion de- hardships for people (and countries) at the bottom of the scribes only the very basics of the two economic systems. In economic ladder. For example, if population growth is rapid reality, no country has a pure form of either economy. Re- and there are not enough jobs to go around, the result often cently, a hybrid economic system has emerged, called state is exploitation of workers. Furthermore, a market economy capitalism, most fully developed in China, Russia, and the only offers people access to goods and services; if people lack Gulf oil states. These countries, rich in natural resources or the means to pay, access alone will not meet their needs. In in abundant labor (China), have used their exports to amass this situation, a society could employ a “safety net” to provide capital that has enabled them to invest in building up the food security for impoverished people—something the market country’s infrastructure and form state-owned corporations. does not do. Also, it is too easy for self-interest to lead busi- Although major players in the global economy, these are nesses and individuals to exploit natural resources or avoid countries where democracy is restricted. As they develop, costs by polluting the environment instead of producing a their people are increasingly joining a “global middle class,” “clean” product. and the tensions between state control of the economy and Presumably acting in the self-interest of their people, political freedom are becoming evident (as in the 2011 governments also find ways to manipulate the market in “Arab spring”). their own favor. This is especially true for international The developed countries and many developing countries trade, where protective barriers and subsidies prevent the free are democracies with market economies, but even in these, flow of goods and services. The World Trade Organization government involvement occurs at many levels. Govern- (WTO) is supposed to enforce trade rules between nations, ments can, for example, own and operate different facets of but wealthy nations have been able to dominate the WTO to the country’s infrastructure, such as postal services, power the detriment of other countries. plants, and public transport systems. Governments may also control interest rates, determine the amount of money International Trade and in circulation, and adopt policies that stimulate economic the World Trade Organization growth in times of slowdown. Governments also maintain surveillance over financial processes such as stock markets Trade is a fundamental economic activity. The exchange of and bank operations (although not always well, based on the goods drives the engine of the free-market economy. In today’s U.S. 2008 market meltdown). On the downside, powerful world, trade has become increasingly globalized, and in the business interests can manipulate facets of a market econ- process, world trade has become one of the most dominant omy, and unscrupulous people can exploit the freedom of forces in society. However, many question whether this is the market to defraud people. Only governments can provide good, and their concerns become headline news every time the the policing that the society needs. WTO meets. For example, in Seattle, Washington, in December 1999, tens of thousands of protesters (called “globophobes” Is There a Conscience? Many people believe that the con- by some) took to the streets to block the delegates from ventional capitalist economic system lacks a “conscience.” assembling—and were subjected to tear gas, pepper spray, They argue that many workings of the market economy create and rubber bullets as things began to turn ugly (Fig. 4). The Figure 4 Protestors at the WTO meeting. The World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle, Washington, in 1999, drew thousands of protestors, who were repelled by police using tear gas and water cannons. 5