Environmental Monitoring and Characterization by Janick Artiola, Ian L. Pepper, Mark L. Brusseau • ISBN: 0120644770 • Pub. Date: March 2004 • Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books Artiola/EnvironmentalMonitoringandCharacterization FinalProof 2.4.2004 5:56pm pageix P REFACE In the 21st century, the fate of the environment has monitor the environment, but also by developing active becomeacriticalissueinbothdevelopedanddeveloping strategies that allow for efficient characterization of spe- countries throughout the world. Population increases cificenvironments.Inadditionweprovideapproachesto andtechnologicaladvancesarecreatingaburdenonsoci- evaluate and interpret data efficiently, with significant ety by requiring continued expansion and concomitant processes being documented via statistical analyses and, resource use. Substantial evidence exists showing that where appropriate, model development. A particularly suchdevelopment hasled todetrimental impacts onthe unique feature of the text is the discussion of physical, environment.Wealsoknowthatincreasedsocietalactiv- chemical,andmicrobialprocessesthateffectbeneficialas ities and demands are changing soil, water, air, climate, well as detrimental influences on the environment. The andresourcesinunexpectedways.Thisinturnhasledtoa text also puts into perspective site-specific remediation renewed interest in protecting the environment and has techniques that are appropriate for localized environ- focusedattentionontheconceptofenvironmentalmoni- ments as well as full-scale ecosystem restoration. Finally, toring and site characterization, including an evaluation theroleofriskassessmentandenvironmentalregulations of the physical, chemical, and biological factors that inenvironmentalmonitoringisassessed. impact the environment. This information is necessary Insummary,thisbookattemptstoanswer theseques- for researchers, decision-makers, and the community as tions: ‘‘How should samples be taken, including why, awhole,toimplementsocialchangesneededtopreserve when,andwhere?Howshouldthesamplesbeanalyzed? andsustainahealthyenvironmentforfuturegenerations. Howshouldthedatabeinterpreted?’’Thisbookshould Thepurposeofthistextbookistodocumentthelatest be useful at the senior undergraduate level, as well as to methodologies of environmental monitoring and site studentsinitiatinggraduatestudiesintheenvironmental characterization important to society and human health science arena. The fact that contributions come from and welfare. We know that the environment exists as a national experts all located at the University of Arizona continuum of biosystems and physio-chemical processes ensuresthatthebookiswellintegratedanduniforminits that help sustain life on earth. Therefore environmental levelofcontent. monitoringshouldideallyconsistofexaminingtheinte- Keyfeaturesofthebookinclude: grativenatureoftheseprocesses.Tothisend,basicprin- ciples of monitoring and characterization are described . Theconceptofintegratingenvironmentalmonitor- for different environments, considering their most rele- ingintositecharacterization vantprocesses.Initially,samplingprotocolsaredescribed, . Numerousreal-lifecasestudies followedbydocumentationofqualitycontrolissuesand . Theuseofnumerouscomputergraphicsandphoto- statisticalmethodsfordataanalysis.Methodsformaking graphs field measurements in soil, vadose zone, water, and at- . Theintegrationofphysical,chemical,andbiological mospheric environments are described. This includes processes real-time monitoring, temporal and spatial issues, and . Keyreferencesrelevanttoeachtopic the issues of scale of measurement. The book advances . Examples of problems, calculations, and thought- the state-of-the-art by not only documenting how to provokingquestions Artiola/EnvironmentalMonitoringandCharacterization FinalProof 2.4.2004 5:56pm pagexi C ONTRIBUTORS JanickF.Artiola EdwardP.Glenn DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience EnvironmentalResearchLaboratory UniversityofArizona UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ Tucson,AZ MartinBarackman DavidM.Hendricks CH MHill DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience 2 Redding,CA UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ PaulW.Brown DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience AlfredoR.Huete UniversityofArizona DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience Tucson,AZ UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ MarkL.Brusseau DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience RainaM.Maier DepartmentofHydrologyandWaterResources DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience UniversityofArizona UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ Tucson,AZ GaleB.Famison RobertMacArthur DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience EducationalCommunications&Technologies UniversityofArizona UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ Tucson,AZ CharlesP.Gerba AllanD.Matthias DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience UniversityofArizona UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ Tucson,AZ VandaJ.Gerhart SheriA.Musil EnvironmentalResearchLaboratory DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience UniversityofArizona UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ Tucson,AZ Artiola/EnvironmentalMonitoringandCharacterization FinalProof 2.4.2004 5:56pm pagexii xii Contributors DonaldE.Myers W.J.Waugh ProfessorEmeritus U.S.DepartmentofEnergy UniversityofArizona GrandJunction,CO Tucson,AZ PeterJ.Wierenga IanL.Pepper DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience EnvironmentalResearchLaboratory UniversityofArizona UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ Tucson,AZ LorneGrahamWilson ChrisRensing DepartmentofHydrologyandWaterResources DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience UniversityofArizona UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ Tucson,AZ IrfanYolcubal Jose´ A.Vargas-Guzma´n DepartmentofHydrologyandWaterResources PhysicalSciencesandArchitecture UniversityofArizona UniversityofQueensland Tucson,AZ Brisbane,Australia ArthurW.Warrick DepartmentofSoil,WaterandEnvironmentalScience UniversityofArizona Tucson,AZ Artiola/EnvironmentalMonitoringandCharacterization FinalProof 2.4.2004 5:56pm pagexiii R EVIEWERS Dr.MichaelJ.Barcelona Dr.CharlesHaas ResearchProfessor DrexelUniversity DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering DepartmentofCivil,ArchitecturalandEnvironmental EnvironmentalandWaterResourcesEngineering Engineering UniversityofMichigan Philadelphia,PA AnnArbor,MI Dr.ArthurG.Hornsby Dr.KirkW.Brown UniversityofFlorida ProfessorEmeritus SoilandWaterScienceDepartment TexasA&MUniversity Gainesville,FL CollegeStation,TX Dr.LawrenceHKeith Dr.KarlEnfield InstantReferenceSources,Inc. R.S.Kerr,U.S.EPALaboratory Monroe,GA Ada,OK Dr.RonaldTurco Dr.WilliamT.FrankenbergerJr. PurdueUniversity UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside DepartmentofAgronomy DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences WestLafayette,IN Riverside,CA Table of Contents 1 Monitoring and characterization of the environment Sampling and data quality objectives in environmental 2 monitoring 3 Statistics and geostatistics in environmental monitoring 4 Automated data acquisition and processing 5 Maps in environmental monitoring Geographic information systems and their use for 6 environmental monitoring 7 Soil and vadose zone sampling 8 Groundwater sampling 9 Monitoring surface waters 10 Monitoring near-surface air quality 11 Remote sensing for environmental monitoring 12 Environmental physical properties and processes 13 Chemical properties and processes 14 Environmental microbial properties and processes 15 Physical contaminants 16 Chemical contaminants 17 Microbial contaminants 18 Soil and groundwater remediation 19 Ecological restoration 20 Risk assessment and environmental regulations Artiola/EnvironmentalMonitoringandCharacterization FinalProof 2.4.2004 5:57pm page1 1 M C ONITORING AND HARACTERIZATION E OF THE NVIRONMENT J.F.ARTIOLA,I.L.PEPPER,ANDM.LBRUSSEAU THEENVIRONMENT 1 living organisms. The untrained observer may see the atmosphere as being separated from the earth’s surface. ENVIRONMENTALMONITORING 2 However, to the trained observer the environment is ENVIRONMENTALREMEDIATIONAND composed of integrated and interconnected cycles and RESTORATION 3 domains. We now know that the environment is a con- SCALESOFOBSERVATION 3 tinuum of physical, chemical, and biological processes AGENCIES 5 thatcannotbeeasilyseparatedfromoneanother.Water, CURRENTANDFUTURESTATUSOF forexample,existsinthreestatesandisfoundinsideand on the surface of earth’s crust, in the atmosphere, and ENVIRONMENTALMONITORING 7 within living organisms. It is difficult to separate the PURPOSEOFTHISTEXTBOOK 9 physical, chemical, and biological processes of water REFERENCESANDADDITIONALREADING 9 withinanyparticularenvironment,becausewateristrans- ferredacrossboundaries. Humansnowhaveamoreholisticviewoftheenviron- ment and recognize that many factors determine its THE ENVIRONMENT health and preservation. This in turn has led to the newtermbiocomplexity,whichisdefinedas‘‘theinterde- Environmentalchangesoccurnaturallyandareapartof pendence of elements within specific environmental or theresultofmultiplecyclesandinteractions.Numer- systems, and the interactions between different types of ous natural cycles of the earth’s environment have been systems.’’ Thus, research on the individual components studied within the framework of three major scientific of environmental systems provides limited information disciplines:chemistry,physics,andbiology.Environmen- on the system itself. We are now also concerned with tal scientists study the dynamics of cycles, such as the sustainable and renewable versus non-renewable natural nitrogenandwatercycles,andtheirrelationshipstosoil- resources as well as with biodiversity in relation to our geologic materials, surface waters, the atmosphere, and ownsurvival. ENVIRONMENTALMONITORINGANDCHARACTERIZATION Copyright2004,Elsevier(USA).Allrightsreserved. 1 Artiola/EnvironmentalMonitoringandCharacterization FinalProof 2.4.2004 5:57pm page2 2 J.F.Artiola,I.L.Pepper,andM.LBrusseau Recently,environmentalmonitoringhasbecomeeven ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING morecriticalashumanpopulationsincrease,addingever- increasingstrainsontheenvironment.Therearenumer- Environmental monitoring is the observation and study ous examples of deleterious environmental changes that oftheenvironment.Inscientificterms,wewishtocollect resultfrompopulationincreasesandconcentratedhuman data from which we can derive knowledge (Figure 1.1). activities.Forexample,intheUnitedStates,theindustrial Thus, environmental monitoring has its role defined in and agricultural revolutions of the last 100 years have the first three steps of the staircase and is rooted in the producedlargeamountsofwasteby-productsthat,until scientific method. Objective observations produce sound thelate1960s,werereleasedintotheenvironmentwith- data,whichinturnproducevaluableinformation.Infor- out regard to consequences. In many parts of the de- mation-derived knowledge usually leads to an enhanced veloping world, wastes are still disposed of without understandingoftheproblem/situation,whichimproves treatment. Through environmental monitoring we thechancesofmakinginformeddecisions.However,itis know thatmostsurfacesoils,bodiesofwaters,andeven important to understand that other factors, including ice caps contain trace and ultratrace levels of synthetic political,economic,andsocialfactors,influencedecision chemicals(e.g.,dioxins)andnuclear-falloutcomponents making. (e.g.,radioactivecesium).Also,manysurfacewaters,in- Theinformationgeneratedfrommonitoringactivities cluding rivers and lakes, contain trace concentrations of can be used in a myriad of ways, ranging from under- pesticidesbecauseoftheresultsofagriculturalrunoffand standingtheshort-termfateofanendangeredfishspecies rainfalltaintedwithatmosphericpollutants.Theindirect inasmallstream,todefiningthelong-termmanagement effectsofreleasedchemicalsintotheenvironmentarealso andpreservationstrategiesofnaturalresourcesover vast arecentcauseofconcern.Carbondioxidegasfromauto- tracts of land. Box 1.1 lists some recognizable know- mobiles and power plants and Freon (refrigerant gas) ledge-based regulations and benefits of environmental releasedintotheatmospheremaybeinvolvedindeleteri- monitoring. ousclimaticchanges. AlthoughBox1.1isnotexhaustive,itdoesgiveanidea Environmentalmonitoringisverybroadandrequiresa of the major role that environmental monitoring plays multi-disciplinaryscientificapproach.Environmentalsci- inourlives.Manyofusarerarelyawarethatsuchregula- entists require skills in basic sciences such as chemistry, tionsexistandthatthesearetheresultofongoingmoni- physics, biology, mathematics, statistics, and computer toring activities. Nonetheless, we all receive the benefits science. Therefore, all science-based disciplines are in- associatedwiththeseactivities. volvedinthisendeavor. WISDOM nt e m g UNDERSTANDING d u J d e KNOWLEDGE nsion e add en u ho al INFORMATION zationetation CompreIntegrati human v DATA electionesting OrganiInterpr Increasing ST OBSERVATION n o and ati MEASUREMENT c erifi Increasing subjectivity V FIGURE1.1 Thestaircaseofknowing.Science-basedobservationsandmeasurementsimproveourunderstandingoftheenvironmentandleadto wisedecision-making.(FromRoots,E.F.(1997)Inclusionofdifferentknowledgesystemsinresearch.In:TerraBorealis.TraditionalandWestern ScientificEnvironmentalKnowledge.WorkshopProceedings,NorthwestRiver,Labrador10&11Sept.1997.No.1. ManseauM.(ed),Institutefor EnvironmentalMonitoringandResearch,P.O.Box1859,StationBHappyValley–GooseBayLabrador,Newfoundland,AOPE10.TerraBorealis 1:42–49,1998.) Artiola/EnvironmentalMonitoringandCharacterization FinalProof 2.4.2004 5:57pm page3 MonitoringandCharacterizationoftheEnvironment 3 BOX1.1Knowledge-BasedRegulationandBenefitsof Weatherforecasting:Anticipatingweather,long- EnvironmentalMonitoring andshort-termclimaticchanges,andweather-related catastrophes,includingfloods,droughts,hurricanes, Protectionofpublicwatersupplies:Including andtornadoes surfaceandgroundwatermonitoring;sourcesof Economicdevelopmentandlandplanning: waterpollution;wasteandwastewatertreatment Resourcesallocation;resourceexploitation andtheirdisposalanddischargeintotheenvironment Populationgrowth:Densitypatterns,relatedto Hazardous,nonhazardousandradioactive economicdevelopmentandnaturalresources wastemanagement:Includingdisposal,reuse, Delineation:Mappingofnaturalresources;soil andpossibleimpactstohumanhealthandthe classification;wetlanddelineation;criticalhabitats; environment waterresources;boundarychanges Urbanairquality:Sourcesofpollution, Endangeredspeciesandbiodiversity: transportation,andindustrialeffectsonhumanhealth Enumerationofspecies;extinction,discovery, Naturalresourcesprotectionandmanagement: protection Landandsoildegradation;forestsandwood Globalclimatechanges:Strategiestocontrol harvesting;watersupplies,includinglakes,rivers,and pollutionemissionsandweather-andhealth-related oceans;recreation;foodsupply gaseousemissions problem.Thisinformationisgatheredwithenvironmen- ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION talmonitoringactivities. AND RESTORATION Environmental remediation and restoration focus on SCALES OF OBSERVATION the development and implementation of strategies geared to reverse negative environmental impacts. An- Attheheartof environmental monitoring arethedefin- thropogenic activities often perturb environments and itions of observation, sample, and measurement, and severely limit their capacity for regeneration. For theirrelationshipstoscale.Modernscienceandengineer- example, metal-contaminated soils often have restrictive ingallowustomakeobservationsatthemicroandglobal physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that scales.Forexample,scientistscanusesubatomicparticles hinder self-regenerating mechanisms. High metal con- as probes to determine atomic and molecular properties centrationsaretoxictoplantsandmicrobessuchasbene- ofsolids,liquids,andgases.Usingthistechnology,scien- ficial soil bacteria. Low-soil microbial populations in tists can now measure minute quantities of chemicals in turnslowdowntheratesofmicrobially-mediateddecom- the environment. At the other end of the scale, space- positionoforganic matter andnutrientcycling.Limited based satellite sensors now routinely scan and map the plant nutrient availability leads to poor or non-existent entiresurfaceoftheearthseveraltimesaday.However,all vegetative plant cover.This is turn increases the chances observationshaveafiniteresolutionineithertwoorthree for wind and water soil erosion that further degrades dimensions, which further complicates the definition of the ecosystem, which also can generate off-site metal scale. For example, consider a satellite picture of a contamination.Remediationactivitiesarefocusedonre- 100km2 watershed, taken with a single exposure, that moving or treating the contamination, whereas resto- hasaresolutionof100m2.Whatisthescaleoftheobser- ration activities are focused on rehabilitating the vation: 100km2 or 100m2? Time is another variable ecosystem. that often defines the scale of an observation. Often, Aninterdisciplinaryapproachiscriticalfor thesuccess temporal environmental data are reported within a ofanyremediationorrestorationactivity.Environmental defined time frame because most data (values) are not remediation and restoration activities involve contribu- collected instantaneously. Small-scale or short-interval tions from environmental scientists and engineers, soil measurementscanbecombinedtoobtainmeasurements andwater scientists,hydrologists, microbiologists, com- of a larger temporal scale. Therefore, the scale of a puter scientists, and statisticians. To develop and imple- ‘‘single’’ observation is not always self-evident. Quite menteffectiveenvironmentalmonitoringandrestoration oftenthescaleofameasurementhasahiddenareaspace programs, it is necessary to understand the major phys- andatimecomponent.Figure1.2showsscaledefinitions ical, chemical, and biological processes operative at for spatial and temporal domains, respectively. The the site and to characterize the nature and extent of the actual scales may seem arbitrary, but they illustrate Artiola/EnvironmentalMonitoringandCharacterization FinalProof 2.4.2004 5:57pm page4 4 J.F.Artiola,I.L.Pepper,andM.LBrusseau therangeofscalesthatenvironmentaldatacancomprise. dailydatatoacentralrepositorylocationforpermanent Example 1.1 illustrates the scales of environmental storageandfurtherstatisticalanalysis.Figure2.3ashows measurements. anexampleofmean24-hourhourlydataCOconcen- trationsduringawintermonthatStation#3.Dailyvalues EXAMPLE1.1 Acityairquality–monitoringstation arethenaveragedmonthly(Figure2.3B)andfinallymean nearabusyintersectioncollectsairsamplesfromaninlet annualvaluescollectedfromthreeothercityCOmoni- 3mabovegroundataflowrateof1Lmin(cid:1)1.Thestream toringstationsarecompared(Table1.1).Table1.1also ofairispassedthroughaninfrared(IR)analyzer,and showsmaximum1-hourand8-hourCOconcentrations carbonmonoxide(CO)concentrationsaremeasured thatcanbeusedtodeterminecompliancewithair-quality everysecond.One-second–intervaldataarestoredinthe standards(seeChapter6)atfourdifferentcitylocations. instrumentmemoryandeveryhourthemeanvalueofthe Thetruescaleandeffortspenttocollectthesedataoften 1200datapointsissentbytheinstrumenttoadatalogger escapestheenduser.Theannualvaluesarenottheresult (seeChapter9).Subsequently,thedataloggerstoresthe ofonelarge-scale(1yearlong)measurement.Theyare 24datapointsandcomputesameantoobtaindailyCO themeansofthousandsofsmall-scale(1-secondinterval) averages.Thedataloggersendsthestoredhourlyand measurements. − GLOBAL Earth(>10,000km) − MESO Continent, country, state (>100km) − INTERMEDIATE Watershed, river, lake(>1km) − FIELD Agric. field, waste site (>1m) − MACRO Animal, plant, soil clod (>1mm) MICRO Soil particle, fungi, bacteria (>1µm) ULTRA-MICRO Virus, molecules (>1nm) A ATOMIC−Atoms, subatomic particles (<1nm) GEOLOGIC (> 10,000 years) GENERATION-LIFETIME (20-100 years) ANNUAL (>1 year) SEASONAL (>4 months) DAILY (>24 hours) HOURLY (>60 minutes) B INSTANTANEOUS (<1second) FIGURE1.2 (A)Scalesofspace.Observationsandmeasurementscanbemadeatmultiplescales.Satellitestakepicturesofentireearth,whereasatoms areprobedwithlightandsubatomicparticles.Intermediate,field,andmacroscalesofobservationsdominateenvironmentalmonitoringandthe remediationstrategies.(B)Scalesoftime.Time-basedobservationsandmeasurementscanbemadeatmanyintervals.Geologictimechangesareusually inferredwithpresenttimeobservationsfromknowntime-basedchanges.Forexample,thechronologicalsequencingofsoils(usuallymeasuredin thousandsofyears)maybeinferredfromtheappearanceordisappearanceofkeyminerals.Observationsdoneover1yearandeachseasonarevery commonandusefulinmonitoringcriticalwater-andair-qualitychanges.