Environmental Medicine FFMM..iinndddd ii 0022//0077//1100 66::0088 PPMM Environmental Medicine Jon G. Ayres BSc MBBS MD FRCP FRCPE FFOM FRCPSG Professor of Environmental and Respiratory Medicine, School of Health and Population Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK Roy M. Harrison OBE BSc PhD DSc CChem FRSC FRMetS Hon MFPH HonFFOM Queen Elizabeth II Birmingham Centenary Professor of Environmental Health, Division of Environmental Health & Risk Management, University of Birmingham, UK Gordon L. Nichols PhD MSB CBiol FRSPH Consultant Epidemiologist, Gastrointestinal, Emerging and Zoonotic Infections Department, Centre for Infections, Health Protection Agency, London, UK Robert L. Maynard CBE FRCP FRCPath FBTS Honorary Professor of Environmental Medicine, University of Birmingham, UK FFMM..iinndddd iiiiii 0022//0077//1100 66::0088 PPMM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Version Date: 20121026 International Standard Book Number: 978-0-340-94656-5 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright hold- ers if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any elec- tronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or con- tact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Certain topics have been covered in shorter form, rather than as a full chapter. These are indicated in the contents list by a box symbol: . These boxes occur throughout the book but are usually linked to main chapters in the same broad subject area. Contributors ix Preface xiii PART 1 BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE 1 1 Environmental medicine in context 3 Jon G. Ayres, Roy M. Harrison, Robert L. Maynard, Roger O. McClellan and Gordon L. Nichols PART 2 METHODOLOGY 23 2 Epidemiological methods for attributing illness 25 Susan Hodgson, Fu-Meng Khaw 3 The surveillance and monitoring of diseases and agents 44 Mike Catchpole 4 Hazard and risk: assessment and management 56 Roger O. McClellan 5 Chemical exposure assessment 86 Sean Semple, John W. Cherrie Short-range person-to-person modelling David Carruthers 99 Long-range modelling David Carruthers 99 Dispersion in cities David Carruthers 101 6a Mapping out the causes of infectious diseases: a case study on the multiple factors involved in Salmonella Enteritidis infections 102 Gordon L. Nichols 6b Mapping the causes and transmission routes of chemicals 106 Mathew R. Heal The application of geospatial technologies to medical studies David R. Green 109 7 Measuring the atmosphere 111 Mathew R. Heal 8 Measuring the water and soil environments 119 Michael O. Rivett , Kevin D. Privett, Robert W. Ivens PART 3 HEALTH EFFECTS 127 Section A: Diseases from respiratory exposure to non-infectious agents 129 9 Deposition, absorption and mechanisms of action of gases and particles in the lung 131 John A.S. Ross, Frank J. Kelly 10 Health effects of air pollution: acute and chronic 141 Ian Litchfield, Douglas W. Dockery, Jon G. Ayres 11 Point sources 153 Josep M. Antó 12 Volcanoes 164 Peter J. Baxter FFMM..iinndddd vv 0022//0077//1100 66::0088 PPMM vi Contents 13 Environmental allergens 168 Moisés A. Calderón, Pablo Rodríguez del Río, Nara T. Orban Summer hypersensitivity pneumonitis/alveolitis Lisa Hill, Jon G. Ayres 178 Exposure to composting emissions and health Peter Sykes 179 14 Indoor air pollution in developed countries 181 Isabella Myers, Robert L. Maynard 15 Indoor air pollution in developing countries 191 Om P. Kurmi, Jon G. Ayres Section B: Respiratory diseases from infectious agents 203 16 Nosocomial transmission and control of SARS 205 Benjamin J. Cowling, Steven Riley, Wing Hong Seto, Gabriel M. Leung 17 Epidemic and pandemic influenza 213 Jonathan S. Nguyen-Van-Tam Avian influenza Jonathan S. Nguyen-Van-Tam 220 2009 Pandemic influenza A/H1N1 Jonathan S. Nguyen-Van-Tam 221 18 Legionnaires’ disease 224 John V. Lee, Gordon L. Nichols Burkholderia species and the rhizosphere T.L. Pitt 232 Q fever Jon G. Ayres 233 Psittacosis (captive birds) Robert M. Smith 234 19 Aspergillosis, mucormycosis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis and histoplasmosis 235 Elizabeth M. Johnson 20 Diseases of air travel 244 David L. Hagen 21 Environmental mycobacteria 252 Joseph O. Falkinham III Section C: Diseases related to exposure to non-infectious material 257 22 Chemical transmission through the food chain 259 Janet A.M. Kyle, Geraldine McNeill 23 Biotoxins and xenobiotics 276 Sally Bradberry, Allister Vale 24 Drinking water safety and standards for drinking water 290 John Fawell 25 Pesticides: herbicides, insecticides and rodenticides 297 Finlay D. Dick 26 Lead 309 Brian L. Gulson Mercury Lisa Hill, Jon G. Ayres 325 27 Cadmium 327 Paul Cullinan Aluminium Finlay D. Dick 333 Manganese Michael Aschner 334 28 Arsenic 336 Paul Cullinan, Geoff H. Pigott 29 Fluorine 342 Peter J. Baxter 30 Toxicity of ingested radionuclides 348 John Harrison Section D: Diseases related to the ingestion of infectious agents 357 31 The sources and environmental origins of gastrointestinal pathogens 359 Gordon L. Nichols, Kåre Mølbak 32 The causes of waterborne disease 373 Paul R. Hunter FFMM..iinndddd vvii 0022//0077//1100 66::0088 PPMM Contents vii 33 Cholera 380 Kelley Lee, Adam Kamradt-Scott 34 Human health risks from toxic cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and diatoms 384 Gordon Nichols 35 Enteric viruses 388 Jim Gray, Miren Iturriza-Gómara 36 The oral acquisition of nematode, cestode and trematode parasites 394 Simon Brooker, Jeroen H.J. Ensink Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Johne's disease and Crohn’s disease 402 John Hermon-Taylor Section E: Vector and skin-borne diseases 403 37 Environmental factors that affect vector-borne pathogen transmission 405 Sarah E. Randolph 38 Flavivirus epidemiology, evolution, dispersal and survival: the influence of anthropology 411 Ernest A. Gould, Stephen Higgs 39 Trypanosomes, leishmania and lymphatic filariasis 424 Edwin Michael 40 Disease transmission by non-biting flies 434 Gordon L. Nichols 41 Tick-borne diseases – changing patterns and effective interventions 447 Cairns Smith, Mutuku A. Mwanthi 42 Haemorrhagic fevers: the natural reservoirs of Ebola, Marburg and Lassa viruses 452 Lorenzo Pezzoli, Natasha S. Crowcroft Section F: Nosocomial diseases – hospitals and institutions 461 43 Clostridium difficile 463 J. S. Brazier 44 The emergence of antibiotic resistance in the hospital environment 468 Alan Johnson Section G: Accidental and deliberate environmental contamination 473 45 CBRN contamination 475 Robert P. Chilcott 46 Management of chemical incidents 487 Virginia Murray Section H: Diseases influenced by climate 499 47 Heat and cold 501 William R. Keatinge 48 Global climate change 510 Sari Kovats, Anthony J. McMichael 49 Adaptation to climate change 521 Giovanni Leonardi Section I: Pressure 531 50 The hyperbaric environment 533 John A.S. Ross 51 Air travel and altitude 547 Yvonne Nussbaumer-Ochsner, Konrad E. Bloch Section J: Land 563 52 Contaminated land and health 565 Andrew Kibble, David Russell 53 Disposal of diseased animals 574 Simon Pollard FFMM..iinndddd vviiii 0022//0077//1100 66::0088 PPMM viii Contents Section K: Radiant energy 583 54 Radiofrequency radiation 585 David Coggon 55 Power-frequency electric and magnetic fields 590 Leeka Kheifets, John Swanson 56 Radon: health effects of environmental exposures 599 Gerald M. Kendall 57 Noise 610 Andy Moorhouse Section L: Genetic, environmental and infectious causes of cancer 623 58 Environmental carcinogenesis 625 David H. Phillips, Stan Venitt PART 4 ENVIRONMENT AND THE PEOPLE 635 59 Is this patient suffering as a result of an environmental exposure? 637 Ware G. Kuschner, Paul D. Blanc 60 Public perception of risk 645 Sarah Damery 61 Environmental law 651 Francis McManus 62 Policy development 659 Martin Williams 63 Health impact assessment 666 Fintan Hurley, Salim Vohra Index 679 FFMM..iinndddd vviiiiii 0022//0077//1100 66::0088 PPMM Contributors Josep M. Antó MD PhD David Carruthers PhD Director, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology Technical Director, Cambridge Environmental Research (CREAL), Barcelona; Professor of Medicine, Universitat Pompeu Consultants Ltd, Cambridge, UK Fabra, Barcelona; Affiliated Researcher, Municipal Institute of Mike Catchpole MB BS MSc FRCP FFPHM Medical Research (IMIM-Hospital del Mar), Barcelona; Director, Deputy Director, Health Protection Agency Centre for Infections, CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain Colindale Avenue, London, UK Michael Aschner PhD John W. Cherrie BSc (Hons) PhD FFOH Department of Pediatrics, Pharmacology and the Kennedy Center Research Director, Institute of Occupational Medicine, for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Edinburgh, UK; Honorary Reader, Department of Environmental School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA and Occupational Medicine, University of Aberdeen, UK Jon G. Ayres BSc MBBS MD FRCP FRCPE FFOM FRCPSG Robert P. Chilcott CBiol FIBiol Professor of Environmental and Respiratory Medicine, Institute of Professor, Principal Toxicologist and Group Leader, CBRN and Occupational and Environmental Medicine, School of Health and Chemical Toxicology, Centre for Emergency Preparedness and Population Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK Response, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK Peter J. Baxter MD MSc FRCP FFOM Consultant Physician in Occupational and Environmental David Coggon OBE MA PhD DM FRCP FFOM FFPH FMedSci Professor of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Medicine, University of Cambridge and Addenbrooke’s University of Southampton, UK NHS Trust Hospital, Cambridge, UK Paul D. Blanc MD MSPH Benjamin J. Cowling PhD Assistant Professor, Department of Community Medicine and Professor and Chief, Division of Occupational and Environmental School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Medicine, Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research University of Hong Kong Institute, University of California, San Francisco, USA Konrad E. Bloch MD Natasha S. Crowcroft MA MSc MD(Cantab) MRCP FFPH Director, Surveillance and Epidemiology, Ontario Agency for Professor, Pulmonary Division, University Hospital of Zurich, Health Protection and Promotion, Canada; Honorary Consultant, Switzerland Health Protection Agency, UK; Associate Professor, Laboratory Sally Bradberry BSc MD MRCP Medicine and Pathobiology and Dalla Lana School of Public Assistant Director, National Poisons Information Service Health, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Birmingham Unit) and West Midlands Poisons Unit, City Hospital, Birmingham UK Paul Cullinan MD FRCP FFOM Professor in Occupational and Environmental Respiratory Disease, Jon S. Brazier PhD MSc CBiol MiBiol SRCS Imperial College, London, UK Consultant Clinical Scientist and Head of Anaerobe Reference Laboratory, NPHS Microbiology Cardiff, University Hospital of Sarah Damery PhD Wales, Cardiff, UK Research Fellow, Primary Care Clinical Sciences, School of Health and Population Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK Simon Brooker DPhil Reader, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Finlay D. Dick MD MRCGP MFOM London, UK; Wellcome Trust Research Fellow, Kenya Medical Clinical Senior Lecturer in Occupational Medicine, Section of Research Institute–Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Population Health, Division of Applied Health Sciences, School of Nairobi, Kenya Medicine and Dentistry, University of Aberdeen, UK Moisés A. Calderón MD PhD Douglas W. Dockery ScD Clinical Research Fellow. National Heart and Lung Institute. Professor of Environmental Epidemiology, Chair, Department of Imperial College Faculty of Medicine; and Royal Brompton Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Hospital, London, UK Mass., USA FFMM..iinndddd iixx 0022//0077//1100 66::0088 PPMM