The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Editors-in-chief: O. Hutzinger · D. Barceló · A. Kostianoy Volume 3 Anthropogenic Compounds Part U Advisory Board: D. Barceló · P. Fabian · H. Fiedler · H. Frank J. P. Giesy · R. A. Hites · M. A. K. Khalil · D. Mackay A. H. Neilson · J. Paasivirta · H. Parlar · S. H. Safe P. J. Wangersky The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Recently Published and Forthcoming Volumes Environmental Consequences of War Estuaries and Aftermath Volume Editor: P. J. Wangersky Volume Editors: T. A. Kassim and D. Barceló Vol. 5/H, 2006 Vol. 3/U, 2009 The Caspian Sea Environment Environmental Specimen Banking Volume Editors: A. Kostianoy and A. Kosarev Volume Editors: S. A.Wise and P. P. R. Becker Vol. 5/P, 2005 Vol. 3/S, 2009 Marine Organic Matter: Biomarkers, Polymers: Chances and Risks Isotopes and DNA Volume Editors: P. Eyerer, M.Weller and C. Hübner Volume Editor: J.K. Volkman Vol. 3/V, 2009 Vol. 2/N, 2005 The Black Sea Environment Environmental Photochemistry Part II Volume Editors: A. Kostianoy and A. Kosarev Volume Editors: P. Boule, D. Bahnemann Vol. 5/Q, 2008 and P. Robertson Vol. 2/M, 2005 Emerging Contaminants from Industrial and Municipal Waste Air Quality in Airplane Cabins Removal Technologies and Similar Enclosed Spaces Volume Editors: D. Barceló and M. Petrovic Volume Editor: M.B. Hocking Vol. 5/S/2, 2008 Vol. 4/H, 2005 Emerging Contaminants from Industrial Environmental Effects and Municipal Waste of Marine Finfish Aquaculture Occurrence, Analysis and Effects Volume Editor: B.T. Hargrave Volume Editors: D. Barceló and M. Petrovic Vol. 5/M, 2005 Vol. 5/S/1, 2008 The Mediterranean Sea Fuel Oxygenates Volume Editor: A. Saliot Volume Editor: D. Barceló Vol. 5/K, 2005 Vol. 5/R, 2007 Environmental Impact Assessment of Recycled The Rhine Wastes on Surface and Ground Waters Volume Editor: T. P. Knepper Engineering Modeling and Sustainability Vol. 5/L, 2006 Volume Editor: Tarek A. Kassim Vol. 5/F (3 Vols.), 2005 Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Great Lakes Volume Editor: R. A. Hites Oxidants and Antioxidant Defense Systems Vol. 5/N, 2006 Volume Editor: T. Grune Vol. 2/O, 2005 Antifouling Paint Biocides Volume Editor: I. Konstantinou Vol. 5/O, 2006 Environmental Consequences of War and Aftermath Volume Editors: Tarek A. Kassim · Damià Barceló With contributions by D. Al-Ajmi · A. Al-Enezi · A. Asem · N. R. Bhat D. Djordjevic · J. Hart · V. Kalafatic · B. S. Levy V. Martinovic-Vitanovic · A. Mihajlidi-Zelic N. R. Miljevi · R. Misak · S. A. S. Omar · P. Polic A. Popovic · D. Relic · Saif ud din · V. W. Sidel J. E. Slutzman · I. Tošić · M. Unkašević Z. Vukmirović · Z. S. Žunić Environmental chemistry is a rather young and interdisciplinary field of science. Its aim is a complete description of the environment and of transformations occurring on a local or global scale. Environmental chemistry also gives an account of the impact of man’s activities on the natural environment by describing observed changes. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry provides the compilation of today’s knowledge. Contributions are written by leading experts with practical experience in their fields. The Handbook will grow with the increase in our scientific understanding and should provide a valuable source not only for scientists, but also for environmental managers and decision-makers. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry is published in a series of five volumes: Volume 1: The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical Cycles Volume 2: Reactions and Processes Volume 3: Anthropogenic Compounds Volume 4: Air Pollution Volume 5: Water Pollution The series Volume 1 The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical Cycles describes the natural environment and gives an account of the global cycles for elements and classes of natural compounds. The series Volume 2 Reactions and Processes is an account of physical transport, and chemical and biological transformations of chemicals in the environment. The series Volume 3 Anthropogenic Compounds describes synthetic compounds, and compound classes as well as elements and naturally occurring chemical entities which are mobilized by man’s activities. The series Volume 4 Air Pollution and Volume 5 Water Pollution deal with the description of civiliza- tion’s effects on the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Within the individual series articles do not appear in a predetermined sequence. Instead, we invite contributors as our knowledge matures enough to warrant a handbook article. Suggestions for new topics from the scientific community to members of the Advisory Board or to the Publisher are very welcome. ISBN 978-3-540-87961-9 e-ISBN 978-3-540-87963-3 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-87963-3 The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Subseries 3 ISSN 1433-6847 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008942127 © 2009 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: WMX Design GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Editors-in-Chief Prof. em. Dr. Otto Hutzinger Prof. Andrey Kostianoy Universität Bayreuth P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology c/o Bad Ischl Office Russian Academy of Sciences Grenzweg 22 36, Nakhimovsky Pr. 5351 Aigen-Vogelhub, Austria 117997 Moscow, Russia [email protected] [email protected] Prof. Dr. Damià Barceló Dept. of Environmental Chemistry IIQAB – CSIC Jordi Girona, 18–26 08034 Barcelona, Spain [email protected] Volume Editors Tarek A. Kassim Prof. Dr. Damià Barceló Oregon State University Department of Environmental Chemistry Department of Civil, Construction and IDAEA-CSIC, C/Jordi Girona 18–26, Environmental Engineering 08034 Barcelona, Spain, and Catalan 202 Apperson Hall Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Corvallis OR 97331 Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat USA de Girona, Edifici Jaume Casademont, 15 [email protected] E-17003 Girona, Spain [email protected] Advisory Board Prof. Dr. D. Barceló Prof. Dr. H. Frank Dept. of Environmental Chemistry Lehrstuhl für Umwelttechnik IIQAB – CSIC und Ökotoxikologie Jordi Girona, 18–26 Universität Bayreuth 08034 Barcelona, Spain Postfach 10 12 51 [email protected] 95440 Bayreuth, Germany Prof. Dr. P. Fabian Prof. Dr. J.P. Giesy Lehrstuhl für Bioklimatologie Department of Zoology und Immissionsforschung Michigan State University der Universität München East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA Hohenbachernstraße 22 [email protected] 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany Prof. Dr. R.A. Hites Dr. H. Fiedler Indiana University Scientific Affairs Office School of Public UNEP Chemicals and Environmental Affairs 11–13, chemin des Anémones Bloomington, IN 47405, USA 1219 Châteleine (GE), Switzerland [email protected] [email protected] vi Advisory Board Prof. Dr. M.A.K. Khalil Prof. Dr. Dr. H. Parlar Department of Physics Institut für Lebensmitteltechnologie Portland State University und Analytische Chemie Science Building II, Room 410 Technische Universität München P.O. Box 751 85350 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany Portland, OR 97207-0751, USA Prof. Dr. S.H. Safe [email protected] Department of Veterinary Prof. Dr. D. Mackay Physiology and Pharmacology Department of Chemical Engineering College of Veterinary Medicine and Applied Chemistry Texas A &M University University of Toronto College Station, TX 77843-4466, USA Toronto, ON, M5S 1A4, Canada [email protected] Prof. Dr. A.H. Neilson Prof. P.J. Wangersky Swedish Environmental Research Institute University of Victoria P.O. Box 21060 Centre for Earth and Ocean Research 10031 Stockholm, Sweden P.O. Box 1700 [email protected] Victoria, BC, V8W 3P6, Canada wangers@telus. net Prof. Dr. J. Paasivirta Department of Chemistry University of Jyväskylä Survontie 9 P.O. Box 35 40351 Jyväskylä, Finland The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Also Available Electronically For all customers who have a standing order to The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, we offer the electronic version via SpringerLink free of charge. Please contact your librarian who can receive a password or free access to the full articles by registering at: springerlink.com If you do not have a subscription, you can still view the tables of contents of the volumes and the abstract of each article by going to the SpringerLink Homepage, clicking on “Browse by Online Libraries”, then “Chemical Sciences”, and finally choose The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. You will find information about the – Editorial Board – Aims and Scope – Instructions for Authors – Sample Contribution at springer.com using the search function. Color figures are published in full color within the electronic version on SpringerLink. vii Preface This preface starts with wording similar to that of the recent book Contaminated Sediments in this series. Indeed, I should repeat that again for the first time in my life I am not so glad to introduce this book entitled Environmental Consequences of War and Aftermath as part of The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry series. The main reason for this feeling is that the whole idea and proposal for this book originated from the late Assistant Prof. Tarek A. Kassim of Oregon State University, but unfortunately he is not with us to enjoy the final product of his ideas. Everything started as part of my role of co-editor of this series when I got the proposal from Tarek and I was asked to finalize the book. What I did basically was to wait for and then revise the manuscripts, and I pushed this project to com- pletion. To be honest, the whole merit of this book is due to Tarek. I hope that his colleagues and friends can appreciate one of his last projects. The first question is: Why do we need a book on environmental consequences of war today? Perhaps an even better question would be: Why did we still have wars in the twentieth century and why do we still have them in the twenty-first century? Apparently, we have not learnt the lessons of the past. We all remember the Gulf War in Kuwait and the war in the Balkans as two of the most recent ones. Each time, more and more sophisticated weapons are used and many chemicals are sprayed around the war zones, so civilian populations and military personnel as well are constantly being exposed to cocktails of chemical contaminants usually at high concentrations. As pointed out in the introduction to one of the chapters, it is recognized that war leads to disastrous effects on people and the physical, biological, economic, and social environment. Environmental effects include (1) direct contamination of air, land, and water; (2) disruption of the infrastructure of society, which, in turn, leads to further environmental damage; (3) use of nonrenewable sources of energy; and (4) diversion of resources that might otherwise be used to promote health and protect the environment. Much information has been acquired on the environmental and human health effects of chemical warfare (CW) agents since they were first employed on a large scale as a method of warfare during World War I. Numerous uncertainties nevertheless remain, partly because CW agents were not developed or tested with the possible long-term adverse environmental or human health con- sequences as a deciding factor in determining whether an agent would be produced ix x Preface and used in munitions. Rather the requirements for the agent’s military effects took precedence. In addition, the interaction among the political, technical, and legal challenges connected with the known or possible risks posed by CW agents is complex and sometimes not well understood. This is usually because technical considerations, when acted on, are almost invariably informed by political ones, such as various legal requirements. The book contains nine chapters covering different aspects of the research on environmental consequences of war and its aftermath and covers in one additional chapter more general issues such as prevention of war and its environmental con- sequences, the legal, political, and technical background to selected environmental and human health effects of CW agents, and the atmospheric transport and deposi- tion of persistent organic pollutants under warfare conditions to more specific ones related to two main tragic examples: the war in the Balkans and the Gulf War. Aspects of the war in the Balkans cover contamination by heavy metals in Serbian national parks, the impact of NATO strikes on the Danube river basin, and the problems associated with transuranium elements. The Gulf War in Kuwait covers other problems related to the impact of oil contamination, the impact on ground- water resources, and the soil damage of ground fortifications among other environ- mental and health problems. Finally, this book is challenging and its publication is timely. We should accept that most scientists who are involved in the field of environmental chemistry have limited experience with CW issues, while many of those who work with CW disarmament and nonproliferation issues tend not to have scientific backgrounds. This book provides the basic background to bridge both communities and to under- stand a bit more about the problem of environmental consequences of war and its aftermath. To minimize the environmental consequences of war and to help prevent war, public-health-based approaches should be developed. This books goes in this direction by providing documentation of the adverse impacts of war on the environ- ment and a bit more education and awareness-raising for the public. Finally, I would like to thank all the contributing authors for their time and efforts in preparing this comprehensive compilation of research papers that will make this book on environmental consequences of war and its aftermath unique in this field. 18 September 2008 D. Barceló Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, C/Jordi Girona 18–26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain, and Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici Jaume Casademont, 15 E-17003 Girona, Spain Contents Background to Selected Environmental and Human Health Effects of Chemical Warfare Agents ...................................................... 1 John Hart Prevention of War and Its Environmental Consequences .................... 21 Victor W. Sidel, Barry S. Levy, and Jonathan E. Slutzman Remote Sensing: Fundamentals, Types and Monitoring Applications of Environmental Consequences of War ......................... 41 Dhari Al Ajmi and Saif ud din War-Induced Soil Degradation, Depletion, and Destruction (The Case of Ground Fortifications in the Terrestrial Environment of Kuwait) .......................................................................... 125 R. Misak, D. Al-Ajmi, and A. Al-Enezi Critical Assessment of the Environmental Consequences of the Invasion of Kuwait, the Gulf War, and the Aftermath .................................................................................... 141 Samira A. S. Omar, N. R. Bhat, and Adel Asem Atmospheric Transport and Deposition of Persistent Organic Pollutants Under Warfare Conditions ..................................... 171 Zorka Vukmirovic´, Miroslava Unkaševic´, and Ivana Tošic´ Environmental and Health Impact Assessment of Ammunition Containing Transuranic Elements ............................... 209 Zora S. Žunic´ and Nada R. Miljevic´ xi