BRIAN A. SMITH, D.C. An English translation of L' ÉTABLISSEMENT DES DYNASTIES M DES CHÉRIFS AU AROC ET LEUR T RIVALITÉ AVEC LES URCS DE LA 'A , 1509-1830 RÉGENCE D LGER Written by Auguste Cour (Paris, Ernest Leroux; 1904) © Brian A. Smith, D.C., Orlando, Florida; 2021 English translation of Cour, Auguste. L'établissement des dynasties des chérifs au Maroc et leur rivalité avec les Turcs de la régence d'Alger, 1509-1830 (Paris, Ernest Leroux; 1904). by BRIAN A. SMITH, D.C. Self-published by author © 2021 Brian A. Smith, D.C. (English translation only) All rights reserved. No portion of the English translation section of this work may be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except as permitted by U.S. copyright law or granted by the author through the International Archives. Author’s (comments) are included for clarity, inconsistencies, or corrections only. Footnotes in the original have been incorporated into the translated text if they explain, elucidate or otherwise serve to inform. If the reader wishes to see the footnotes of Mr. Cour’s work, they are referred to the original work which appears at the end of this file. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SHARIFIAN DYNASTIES OF MOROCCO AND THEIR RIVALRY WITH THE TURKS OF THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS 1509 – 1830 by AUGUSTE COUR (1904).1 CHAPTER 1: Christian enterprises on the Barbary Coast in the 15th century – causes. Results: The political-religious revolution by the Islamic brotherhoods. The end of the Berber dynasties in the midst of general anarchy. The Muslim rulers of North Africa seem to have been the cause of much of the turmoil that affected them due to their internal divisions. The intrigues and the ambition of the emirs of Granada, the Benou l’Aḥmar, had placed the Marinid dynasty in a very precarious position towards the end of the 14th century. For their part, the sultans of Tlemcen had already succeeded in reducing the situation of the Marinid dynasty in the East. By dint of energy and cunning, the Marinid Sultan ‘Abd el- ‘Aziz succeeded in reestablishing his authority on solid foundations. First, poison got rid of the Emir of Granada, Yousof II in 1392 (not 1395 as stated in the book), and he could not ensure the succession to his protégé and son Yousof III. The latter's younger brother, Mohammed VI, seized the throne in 1392 and imprisoned his brother; then, to have a free hand on the African side, he secured the neutrality of his Christian neighbors by treaties. In Tunis, the Hafsid sultan ‘Abd el-‘Aziz fought against the Arab hordes, and, in order to establish himself firmly at home, was on good terms with the Sultan of Fez. The latter took the opportunity to bring down the Tlemcen dynasty. Two great successful expeditions in 1399 and 1401 assured him of the latter's vassalage temporarily. This enabled ‘Abd el-‘Aziz to not neglect the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula where he still occupied places, in particular the city of Gibraltar. At the same time he found effective help from the Muslim corsairs who relentlessly harassed the coasts of the Christian allies of his Andalusian rival and hunted their merchant ships mercilessly. The course had been waged on the coasts of North Africa for a long time. (“Course” is used when describing a voyage of the corsairs in this translation.) It was one of the forms of jihad. Hadn't God created the sea for his people? Was it not the duty of believers to fight the infidel is not submissive everywhere which was, a priori, for the service of the community of Muslims? Ibn Khaldoun tells us how the course was practiced in Bougie thirty years before his arrival in this city: A more or less numerous company of privateers is getting organized; they build a ship and choose men of proven bravery to sail it. These warriors will make descents on the coasts and the islands inhabited by the Franks; they arrive unexpectedly and take away everything they can get their hands on; they also attack the ships of the infidels, often seize them, and return home laden with booty and prisoners. 1 Auguste Cour. L’Établissement des dynasties des Chérifs au Maroc et leur rivalité avec les Turcs de la Régence d’Alger 1509 - 1830. (Paris, Ernest Leroux; 1904) Sometimes very prominent figures, such as the Hafçid Sultan of Tunis, were, so to speak, shareholders in these companies and derived a large income from them. This sultan, who had excellent relations with the governments of Cairo, Fez and the Muslims of Spain, needed to worry the infidels of Sicily or of the Iberian peninsula, enemies of his allies. He himself, to be able to act freer against the latter side, had treaties with Genoa and Venice. The profits of the course contributed to maintain the armies which ensured his power against the Arab hordes and the towns of Djerid. On the Moroccan side, the corsairs of Tetouan competed in daring with those of Bougie or Tunis. The organization of the course was not possible in the Muslim ports of Spain because of the treaties which bound the emirs of Granada with the kings of Castile. But Tetouan was in the territory of a prince who was not sorry to bring trouble to his neighbors. Tetouan, at the gates of Andalusia, was where information on the expected merchant convoys was quick and easy to obtain. Tetouan offered the privateers the advantage of location and the necessary guarantees from the government. The misdeeds of the corsairs of Tetouan were so numerous, they so worried the Castilian commerce and coasts that Henri III was resolved to send an expedition to punish them in 1399. The diplomatically prepared expedition to Grenada took place at the height of a campaign by the Sultan of Fez against Tlemcen. Tetouan was taken, sacked; half of the inhabitants were slain, the other half was taken into slavery in Spain. The city remained depopulated and ruined for most of the following century. The capture of Tetouan had considerable political consequences. It stirred the Muslim religious world in North West Africa. This expedition, which was to destroy piracy, only served it. It should not be forgotten that Muslims cannot be enslaved. The marabouts traveled the country to investigate and collect alms intended for the redemption of captives. Did all these alms go to the captives? Texts suggest that among Muslims (as among Christians, moreover) the quest for captives was a fruitful industry. The governments could not deal with the ransoms without solidarity more or less with the corsairs, without letting belief in a hidden support system incompatible with the treaties to surface. The marabouts took the place of the governments. Until then, holy war had been fought at the risk and peril of the warriors. They always found there the salvation of their souls and often ample booty. But when the marabouts began to beg for those who fell into captivity, the course resumed with unusual violence. The governments could only contain men whose interests were confused with religious duty with difficulty. The Marinids, who had risen up thanks to a religious party, who had favored this party, could not use them to defend themselves. Like the last Almoravid leaders, like the Almohads, they were forced to resort to Christian militias. Subject to the same economic and financial necessities, they needed Jewish or Christian merchants. Their enemies, in order to discredit them, did not fail to bring against them the accusation which they themselves had brought against the Almohads. The Marinid sultans did not dare to clash head-on with the popular ideas of holy war or the course; they were afraid to agree with their detractors. Too busy, moreover, on the Tlemcen side to have time to organize a policy of resistance against the religious party, they let themselves be carried away by the current. The Marinid Sultan 'Abd el-Aziz had concluded an agreement with Portugal because of the treaty of his enemy, the Emir of Granada, with the ruler of Castile. The house of Aviz, which reigned over Portugal, had given the commerce of this small country a lively impulse. The Portuguese crisscrossed the shores of North and West Africa and a prelude to the great discoveries which were to bring them to the Cape of Good Hope and to India. 'Abd el-'Aziz dead, his brother and successor ‘Abd Allah did not know or could not, for lack of time, continue the same policy. He only reigned for a year; he was proclaimed on Saturday, 11 November 1396 and died Tuesday, 19 March 1397. The third brother, Abu Sa'id, ascended the throne at the age of sixteen and a half. Little acquainted with business, he let himself be dominated by the religious party and tolerated the privateers attacking the commerce of Christian nations without distinction. It was to respect the agreement with Portugal. Even supposing this agreement lapsed, the attacks of the corsairs were not to be keenly felt by a nation of navigators. Much better, the Portuguese nation had founded itself in the midst of the struggles against the Moors, conquering from them most of its territory piece by piece. The Portuguese people were still trembling with these struggles. The idea of a Crusade against Muslims, propagated by the Pope throughout Christendom, was perhaps nowhere as popular as in Portugal. At that time the King of Portugal, João I, wanted to arm his knights' sons. He produced them in numerous tournaments to give them the opportunity to distinguish themselves. Descourtisans persuaded the young princes (including the famous infant Don Henri) to ask the king for the favor of arming him as knights in the crusade against the African Muslims. King João first resisted his sons; he had just won great successes over King Castile, he feared losing or tarnishing the laurels conquered at Aljubarota under the citadels of the Moors. Aljubarota is in the province of Leiria where King João I defeated his namesake Juan I of Castile on 14 August 1385. This victory secured the house of Aviz the throne of Portugal. But the princes insisted; the queen and the Pope intervened in their turn. The king allowed himself to be won over by the infantes, the Ceuta expedition was resolved. The Portuguese showed great prudence and resolution in this campaign. Castile had given them the example of recent success in Tetouan. They also knew by the reports of their agents the internal divisions which ravaged the empire of Marinids, they knew the state of hostility which reigned between the court of Fez and that of Tlemcen. Their agents would have been the English and German merchants. Since 1412, the Sultan of Tlemcen, Abou Malek 'Abd el Ouahed had declared independence and threatened to invade the states of the Sultan of Fez. During this tense situation, the Portuguese fleet appeared before Ceuta on 15 August 1415. Between two perils, Abu Sa'id seemed to remain inactive and waited in Fez for the outcome of the events: The governor of Ceuta, Şalaḥ ben Şalaḥ, of the Marinid family, let himself be surprised despite the forces accumulated in the place. The city fell to the power of the Portuguese on the 21st. The indignation and the anger of the Muslims were great in the Maghreb, but especially in Spain. Until then North West Africa had been the great reservoir of men for the holy war against the Christians of the Peninsula. The capture of Ceuta risked drying up this resource. At the same time, Castile adopted a markedly aggressive stance against the emirate of Granada. Like the Portuguese chronicler, Andalusian Muslims might have thought that their rule in Spain had received a fatal blow. Muslim rulers on both sides of the strait were forced by popular sentiment into an alliance to wrest Ceuta from the Christians. The emir of Granada took advantage of the death of the pretender Mouley Hassoun, brother of Abu Sa’ïd, to reconcile the sultan with his great vassals, then they all marched together against Ceuta. Their combined efforts failed. The sultan of Fez Abou Sa'id was accused of weakness and inaction. The irritated emir of Granada took from his ally, by withdrawing, his last possessions in Spain, in particular Gibraltar. The revolt broke out in Fez. The sultan, betrayed by his chamberlain 'Abd el-‘Aziz ben Aḥmed el- Lobabi was assassinated in 1421; his harem was violated, most of his children massacred. His brothers tried to compete for power. But, in the midst of their competitions, the Sultan of Tlemcen seized Fez, proclaimed a vassal prince, Mouley Mohammed, and withdrew. Şalaḥ ben Salah who relied more on the support of Fez to recover Ceuta, made vassal homage to the Emir of Granada and settled in Tangier in 1423. The civil war in the north of Maghreb did not end. A branch of the Marinid family, the Beni Wattâs, on the death of Abu Sa'id, had proclaimed his one year old son Abd el Hagg sultan. Abou Zakariâ Yahia ben Ziận el-Wattâsi, tutor of the young prince and regent of kingdom, settled in Salé from where his supporters resisted the sovereign of Fez, vassal of Tlemcen. Taking advantage of all these competitors, the Emir of Grenada in turn tried to gain a solid foothold in North Africa. For his part, the Sultan of Tunis, 'Abd el-‘Aziz, took pride in the sudden preponderance of the kingdom of Tlemcen. In 1425 and 1428 he sent two great expeditions which overthrew the sultans of Tlemcen. Three years later he led a new expedition that placed a new suitor on the throne of this city for the third time in less than seven years. The lowering of the rulers of Tlemcen had enabled El Wattâsi to drive out Mouley Mohammed from Fez and to restore, at least in part, the Marinid authority. There was an eight year interval between the death of Abu Sa'id and the assumption of power by the young ‘Abd el Haqq å Fez with his tutor El Wattaşi. By 1425 he had secured Salaḥ ben Şalaḥ, willingly or by force, and besieged the city of Ceuta with him, albeit unnecessarily. The revolts of the great vassals of the sultans of Fez continued. Even in Tunisia, the death of ‘Abd el-‘Aziz in 1434 enabled the Arabs, who were restrained under his reign, to fight relentlessly against his successors and to exhaust their resources. The Portuguese chose this period of general anarchy in Barbary to extend their conquests. They attacked Tangier which offered them advantages by the proximity of its port and as a point of support for Ceuta. Ceuta had already suffered two great sieges in 1418 and 1425. It was not long before it was blockaded by partisans of the holy war. It was reported by chroniclers as early as 1427 that a Djazoule monk appeared as a fighter under its walls. It is understandable that the Portuguese were interested in having a place of support nearby, in the event of another blockade of Ceuta. Faced with this new danger for Islam, the religious party succeeded in asserting itself. It forced the great Moroccan leaders to peace. Holy war was preached. The warriors of Fez, Rif, the Moroccan Atlas, and Tafilalt came running. Despite wonders of valor on the part of the Portuguese, despite the eight assaults delivered, Tangier resisted. The infant Ferdinand, prisoner after this unfortunate campaign, preferred martyrdom and death to a deliverance which would have lessened, if not the glory, then the political esteem of his country. The only result of this affair was to show the dominance of the party of the marabouts to which the successful resistance and the victory were due after all. The Portuguese were not discouraged. They burned to avenge both their prince and their defeat. The conquest of Qçar es Seghir provided them with the opportunity in 1458. At the same time as it provided the religious party with the opportunity to assert itself once more. This party did not cease to grow in strength and influence in all regions of the Maghreb during the regency of El Wattasid, in the midst of civil wars between the great vassals or between Berber and Arab tribes. The marabouts organized in brotherhood obeyed at the word of their spiritual leader more than at the injunctions of sovereigns. It was in vain that the latter emptied the zawiya to monitor and count the khouan (brothers). The religious figures presented these police measures as a persecution in the eyes of the people and were able to derive prestige and sympathy from them. The religious leaders, the sheikhs, characters placed in charge of the brotherhood, had companions (achåb, sing. caḥib), responsible for keeping the zawiya obedient. These companions of the sheikhs, helped by the khouan, formed the front-line army in the political or religious action of their leaders. Lower in the hierarchy, the khoddâm (sing. khảdim), artisans or fellahs, and the religious servants of the brotherhood, came from the blind masses which supported the zawiya through their voluntary contributions and their shear number which influenced the significance marabout or religious saint that was venerated. One of these religious figures was a sharif from Sous, Abu 'Abd Allah Mohammed ben `Abd er-Raḥman el Jazouli. The date of El Jazouli's birth is unknown; we only know that he was born in Tenkart, in the Sous. In his youth he came to Fez where he studied at the Medersa es-Sefarin, where Ahmed Zarrouq taught. He then traveled to Marrakech and met the Sheikh Imghar es Seghir in the land of Tamesna with whom he affiliated. He made the trip to Mecca, where he stayed for seven years. During this time unknown figures took care of his family. Before reforming his brotherhood, El Jazouli spent fourteen years in the solitude of Tamesna. He was endowed with a bold initiative, reformed his brotherhood and organized it more in line with the actions he planned to accomplish. This brotherhood had until then been confined in the north of the Maghreb; around the tomb of Sidi 'Abd es Selâm ben Mechich; in the north-west, especially Tamesna; and in Spain. El Jazouli created over ten separate zawiya; some were new while others he absorbed: Afoughal: Salé, the corsair port of northern Morocco after the rest of the main northern ports were in Christian hands; Tlemcen; Fez; Jebel Zerhoun; Miknåsa; Anmaï (Tedla; 40 miles from Marrakech on the road along the Atlas to Fez); Azraq (Tedla; location unknown); Marrakech; Bou Romman (land of the Haouara); Massa (in the Sous); and Akka (Dra 'a). These new zawiya were expertly placed across the country and, with the already existing zawiya in northern Morocco and Spain, it was possible for him to monitor the state of Islam over the entire west. The texts do not specify when El Jazouli began his mission. According to Muslim authors, at the time of his death he had twelve thousand six hundred and sixty -five khouan in his brotherhood. It is understandable that such an army of fanatics could have aroused the mistrust of political figures with an interest in the maintenance of the status quo. El Jazouli’s brotherhood covered the Maghreb like a net; was his goal to organize the country solely for jihad? Was there anyone capable of preventing him from choosing the leader of the country? A few days before his death, his disciples said to him: Master, people say that the establishment of your power is like the advent of the expected Fatimid [el-Mahdi]. The saint answered them: People only believe those who cut off their necks. God will send them someone to cut off their necks. They came to see these words as a prophecy. El Jazouli had other enemies than the political figures. The tolba, who were not subservient to the brotherhoods, watched in anguish as they lost their income derived from the Hobous and other pious foundations, much as the lawyers and the clergy watched the stipends they were accustomed to receive evaporate. The irritation skillfully maintained by the political figures brought about the end of El Jazouli. He was poisoned and died at night while praying in 1465. The anger of his followers was great. What happened gives a glimpse of the degree of military organization which they had reached. One of them, 'Omar ben Seiyaqa el Meghiți ech Chiadhmi, nicknamed ‘es -Seiyâf, called the people at the mosque and exhorted them to avenge the saint. Under this pretext the fanatics took up arms and murdered all those they suspected. Then, with 'Omar at their head, they set out on a campaign and fought those who were hostile to them among the populations of the Sous. The astonishment, when the death of the saint was learned in Fez, was no less great. The power of the Marinids did not derive any benefit from it, however. The religious party had worked the political ground singularly prepared by recent events. For twenty years, the Andalusian emirs had maintained themselves by playing one faction of Christian princes against another in their lands, capitalizing on their internecine rivalries. The capture of Gibraltar by the Castilians in 1463 gave the Muslims a presentiment of the last storm which was to make them lose Andalusia. It was practically in vain when they asked for help from all over Islam, mainly from North Africa and especially Morocco. North Africa had just been violently tested by the great successive expeditions of the sultans of the three Maghreb states fighting against each other. Anarchy tended to reign in Barbary, particularly in Morocco. From the most extreme Sous to Tedla, the local chiefs wrestled with each other or were mutually suspicious. The only powerful organization in the West was the politico-religious brotherhood prepared by El Jazouli. The sharifs had entered this brotherhood en masse (it was commonly called the brotherhood of the Sharifs) and were soon to seize its leadership. They will soon use the powerful influence of the brotherhood to their advantage. The Marinid sultan 'Abd el Haqg ben Abou Sa'id, had watched El Wattâsi struggle painfully against the Portuguese in the North, against the rebellions and anarchy in the South and the East during his minority. The regent was killed while suppressing an Arab revolt. The viziers who succeeded him were no better. The treasury was exhausted. The sultan understood that the most necessary and urgent change was financial reform. He wanted to start it in 1462. The Jewish merchants advanced him money in the meantime. One of them named Haroun served as his financial vizier and even appears to have been his personal advisor. Haroun distributed the taxes to all the great persons, suppressed that part of the djazia that went to the sharifs and the marabouts and distributed it to his poor co-religionists instead, or so was it said. A revolt was brewing in Fez. The sultan was quickly growing unpopular. The preferential treatment he was believed to be giving to the Jews in his council shocked all Muslims. Sheikh Ahmed Zarrouq, the most influential religious figure in Fez, expressed his disapproval of such conduct by refraining from attending prayer with the Sultan in the Qarouin mosque. The Sultan feared the action of the zawiya; he had them emptied in order to count and identify the khouan. In the meantime, disturbances broke out both on the side of Ceuta and Taza. The Sultan wanted to go and repress them in person. The sultan went towards Ceuta first. He left the vizier Haroun in Fez with the task of administering government in his absence. This measure deeply humiliated the great Muslim figures of Fez. In the meantime the news came of the capture of Anfa (Casablanca) by the Portuguese. The discontent in Fez was at its height. The tax collectors, through their imprudence, incited the people to revolt. One mistreated a woman belonging to a prestigious family of sharifs; she called for help. A fight took place. The preacher of the Qarouin mosque, an agent of the Chadelia, took the opportunity to call the people to revolt. During the movement the sharifs seized the city and proclaimed their Naqib, Abou `Abd Allah Mohammed ben 'Ali ben' Imran el Djouți, as head of state. The latter accepted and took the title of imâm thus linking himself to the tradition of his Idris ancestor. Haroun had warned the Sultan. He returned to Fez and found the city gates closed. He wanted to parley, but, on the contrary, Haroun urged him to go and strengthen himself in Miknâsa (Méquinez). The sultan prevaricated, requesting that he be allowed to go to the mosque of Qarouin to explain himself and to address the people. The doors opened for him and him alone and he was led to the mosque. Once there the preacher, Abu Fârès' Abd el‘Aziz el Ouriagheli, slit his throat. This was on a Friday at the end of May 1465, and it is said that Sheikh Ahmed Zarrouq strongly approved this act. This holy person consecrated an olive tree to Hobus, with the revenues derived from this tree to be used in commemoration of the slaying every Friday at the mosque. A special reader was to recall the assassination by reading the sura of the Two cofs. The sharif remained at the head of power with his title of imâm until 1470. He had taken his own son as vizier and inaugurated his reign by allowing the populace to slaughter and pillage the Jews. Haroun was massacred along with the others. News of the Sultan's assassination did not take long to spread. Immediately the son of his former tutor, Mohammed el Wattâsi arose as a pretender, in Avila. He had already been solicited several times by the discontented against the Sultan. He always refused the offers. But, when the sharif had been proclaimed, he no longer hesitated. He raised the tribes in his favor and marched on Fez. The sharif, to prevent the siege of the city, made a diversion in the direction of Miknâsa, near which he defeated el Wattasi. The latter returned in force the following year to besiege Fez. He blocked her so tightly that new town soon surrendered. It was then learned that the King of Portugal had just surprised Açila. The Portuguese, informed by their spies of the movements of Marinid El Wattâsi, had decided on this daring move. Fifteen days later, before Mohammed El Wattâsi had time to retrace his steps, the city of Tangier had opened its doors to Christians. When he arrived he found the Portuguese in such a strong position that his only resource was to deal with them. He was forced to confirm their capture and leave one of his sons as a hostage. At least he had a free hand with respect to the kingdom of Fez. He returned a second time to seize this city. One of his sisters, Zohra, helped by Qaïd Ech Chekiri, had skillfully maintained the positions already occupied by his allies. The old town had to surrender and the sharif tried, in vain, to create a diversion on the north side where his family members were located in large numbers. Beaten, he fled to Tunis in 1472. Mohammed el Wattâsi was able to pacify the country all around Fez. But the sharifs had not given up. Just as the naqib of Fez fled, another sharif rose up in the north and called himself emir, leader of holy war. He founded a city, Ech Chaoun, from the position of which he could harass the whole country from Ceuta to Açila at the same time. Soon, from Tetouan, now recovered from the damage wrought by the Andalusians, emissaries soon readily signaled the approach of enemy fleets. The Marinid sultan of Fez, El Wattåsi, did not dare to harass the sharif; his rival from Tlemcen was beginning to threaten; perhaps the Sultan of Fez was also very happy to create problems for his Christian allies and thereby hoped to attract the favor of the religious party? Portugal had skillfully taken advantage of the anarchy which raged over northern Africa. Its fleets crisscrossed the coasts of the Ocean and the Strait and kept the corsairs at bay; they turned towards the coasts of Spain. There, the emirs of Granada, taking advantage of the revolutions of Fez, first seized the Marinid possessions, but they had to cede them willingly or by force to the King of Castile and perform an act of vassalage. The corsairs redoubled their violence and efforts. In 1481, Ferdinand and Isabelle, having reunited Castile with Aragon and feeling strong enough in the Peninsula, in their turn decided to take their arms to Africa to stop piracy. The Melilla expedition took place immediately. The sultan of Fez at war with that of Tlemcen could send only a derisory aid to Melilla. The city was taken by the Spaniards who fortified themselves there. Kçaça, near Melilla, surrendered almost immediately and was also occupied. Ferdinand and Isabelle then turned their weapons against the emirate of Granada. Malaga was taken in 1487. Granada succumbed soon after (1492). The capture of Granada signaled the ruin of Muslim rule in Spain which resounded painfully throughout the Islamic world: Andalusia, homeland of Islam, is today under the hands of Christians. They turned into darkness the day that illuminated it. Its mosques have become temples of idols, its lions are the prey quarreled over by dogs! And the great mosque of Cordoba, full of books! Its doors are closed today; it is the refuge of rats, a kennel! The Christians equipped their fleet at great expense. Their raïs come out laden with munitions for war; they want to seize the djazia of the poor of Islam! And now, their blow is done, they will return home victorious. Oh! If, among the people of the Maghreb or Algiers, there is no man to help the religion, may God make them the prey of Christians! May he obscure their lives with infamous death! Let him deliver Constantinople to the fury of the plague which is sweeping away all! - But what am I saying! Their hearts beat, their eyes shed torrents of tears, they see the fire which devours the homes of Andalusia, and which does not stop night or day .... These calls for vengeance had not been heard before. The hatred of the Christian spread over the coasts of Africa even more than that of the past from a den of pirates and sea raiders. This brigandage was supported by the greed of the inhabitants of the ports and the marabouts who drew a good income from it, by the princes who thus harnessed the instincts of the populations and dragged them behind. The holy war, the course, a new form of holy war, sung by poets as the revenge of Islam, were approved and