‘Norwegian-English’: English native speakers’ attitudes to Norwegian-accented English. Christoffer Hordnes Department of Foreign Languages University of Bergen May 2013 ii Summary in Norwegian Denne masteroppgavens formål har vært å se på engelskmenn sine holdninger til nordmenn som snakker engelsk med ulik grad av norske fonologiske spor i engelsken sin, med Recieved Pronunciation som modell. I all hovedsak har studien handlet om to lydopptak der to nordmenn snakket engelsk med en ganske kraftig norsk1 uttale, en uttale som kan minne veldig mye om Torbjørn Jagland sin uttale, og to andre lydopptak der to nordmenn snakket engelsk med en mye mindre merkbar norsk uttale. Recieved Pronunciation var modellen for uttalen i lydopptakene som inneholdt en lite merkbar norsk uttale. En rekke engelskmenn vurderte lydopptakene med nordmennene som snakket engelsk og svarte på et spørreskjema. Svarene kan kategoriseres innenfor kategoriene prestisje og selskapelighet. En lang rekke studier, som man kan lese om i Chapter 3, indikerer at brukere av standarddialekter/-aksenter ofte blir sett på som mer prestisjefulle enn brukere av dialekter og aksenter som ikke er standard, når språket er eneste faktor. Prestisjefulle dialekter og aksenter skårer ofte noe lavere på selskapelighet, spesielt i Storbritannia. Dette bildet inkluderer også Engelsk med en utenlandsk uttale, der engelskbrukere fra i-land som oftest er rangert høyere enn engelskbrukere fra u-land. Videre viser undersøkelser at man kan oppnå høyere prestisje- evalueringer hvis man har en mindre tydelig utenlandsk engelskuttale enn en kraftig utenlandsk engelskuttale, mens studier på selskapelighet på dette området er mer mangelfulle. Som en av hypotesene i denne oppgaven forutså, ble nordmennene som hadde færrest norske fonologiske spor i engelskuttalen sin ble sett på som mest prestisjefulle. Ingen konkluderende resultater ble funnet for selskapelighet. Nordmenn er i følge resultatene relativt godt ansett generelt sett. Ingen nordmenn var særlig negativt evaluert på noen områder uansett engelskuttale. Oppgaven undersøkte også om nordmennene på lydopptakene fikk bedre tilbakemeldinger hvis respondentene visste de var norske kontra hvis de ikke visste de var norske. Dette greide ikke oppgaven å få svar på. Oppsummert, resultatene i masteroppgaven indikerer at man som nordmann kan bli sett på som flinkere, smartere, mer ambisiøs og høyere utdannet hvis man snakker «bra engelsk»2 enn hvis man snakker engelsk med en kraftig norsk uttale, som f. eks Torbjørn Jagland. Men engelskuttalen til personer som Torbjørn Jagland betyr ikke at man får negativ prestisje, nordmenn er generelt sett godt ansett, i følge resultatene. 1 Med norsk menes øst-norsk. Se Chapter 3. 2 Det vil si engelsk med få norske fonologiske spor, med en uttale tett opptil RP. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost I want to thank Professor Karol Janicki for being my supervisor and for guiding me in my work. His thoroughness has hopefully rubbed off on my thesis and made it better and more concise. Also, the contributions to this thesis made by Silje Hegna Borge, Tore Lyngstad, Siren Klakegg and Ingrid Elisabeth Ringstad have been crucial, and it would have been impossible to finish without them. Thanks to the members of Sosiolingvistikk Master Help Desk, Håvard Lie Loftheim, Magnus Severin Roald, Øystein Reiersen, Lene Fjeldsbø and Sverre ‘Sweden’ Humberset Hagen, for being good company and for answering all kinds of questions. Gratitude to all the people who helped me find English respondents, a task which was much harder than I had anticipated. Also, thanks to all the students studying Master i fremmedspråk at Institutt for Fremmedspråk at the Faculty of Humanities for making me thrive at the university, even throughout the busy last months. Christoffer Hordnes Bergen, May 2013 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Summary in Norwegian .......................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iv List of tables and screenshots ............................................................................................... viii List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................ ix 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Aim and scope .................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research questions and hypotheses .................................................................................. 2 1.3 The structure of the thesis ................................................................................................. 3 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ..................................................................................... 5 2.1 Attitudes ............................................................................................................................ 5 2.1.1 What decides our attitudes ......................................................................................... 7 2.2 Attitudes to language ........................................................................................................ 9 2.2.1 Language and Culture ................................................................................................ 9 2.2.2 Attitudes to speech styles ......................................................................................... 11 2.2.3 The idea of standardisation ...................................................................................... 12 2.2.4 General attitudes to national and minority languages .............................................. 16 2.3 Attitudes to English ........................................................................................................ 17 2.3.1 A brief historical overview ...................................................................................... 17 2.3.2 Non-accent: A myth ................................................................................................. 18 2.3.3 Attitudes to English in the UK ................................................................................. 18 2.3.4 Attitudes to English in the USA ............................................................................... 21 2.3.5 Other Englishes and attitudes ................................................................................... 24 2.3.6 Media and its influence on language attitudes ......................................................... 25 2.3.7 How language attitudes can affect your opportunities in life .................................. 28 2.4 Attitudes to foreign-accented language .......................................................................... 29 2.4.1 English foreign-language speakers’ concerns about foreign-accented language..... 30 2.4.2 Native speaker attitudes to non-native accent and accent hierarchies ..................... 33 2.4.3 Education ................................................................................................................. 40 2.4.4 Job-related discrimination over foreign-accented speech ........................................ 42 2.4.5 Factors that can alter attitudes to foreign-accented language .................................. 44 v 3 METHOD ............................................................................................................................. 47 3.1 The linguistic variables and variants .............................................................................. 47 3.1.1 Defining Norwegian-accented English .................................................................... 47 3.1.3 Standard British English (RP) .................................................................................. 50 3.2 The speakers ................................................................................................................... 50 3.2.1 Speaker A ................................................................................................................. 50 3.2.2 Speaker B ................................................................................................................. 51 3.2.3 Speaker C ................................................................................................................. 51 3.2.4 Speaker D ................................................................................................................. 51 3.3 Materials ......................................................................................................................... 52 3.4 The Method ..................................................................................................................... 54 3.5 The online surveys .......................................................................................................... 56 3.6 The respondents .............................................................................................................. 59 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 60 4.1 The quantitative study .................................................................................................... 60 4.1.1 Survey 1: Speaker nationality unknown .................................................................. 60 4.1.2 Survey 2: Speaker nationality unknown .................................................................. 62 4.1.3 Combined results from Survey 1 and 2 .................................................................... 64 4.1.4 Side note: Results from Correctness ........................................................................ 66 4.2 The qualitative study: Direct and indirect attitudes towards Norwegian-accented English and Norwegians .................................................................................................................... 66 4.2.1 Survey 1 ................................................................................................................... 66 4.2.2 Survey 2 ................................................................................................................... 74 4.3 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 81 4.3.1 Discussion regarding Hypothesis 1 .......................................................................... 81 4.3.2 Discussion regarding Hypothesis 2 .......................................................................... 85 4.3.3 Discussion regarding Hypothesis 3 .......................................................................... 87 4.3.4 Correctness discussed .............................................................................................. 91 4.3.5 Attitudes towards Norwegians and Norwegian-accented English ........................... 91 4.3.6 Self-critique ........................................................................................................ 92 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................. 94 5.1 Summary of the findings and conclusions ...................................................................... 94 5.2 Future research ............................................................................................................... 95 LIST OF REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 96 vi Appendix 1: The online survey(s) ....................................................................................... 102 vii List of tables and screenshots Table 2.1: Results from Lindemann (2005)…………………………………………………..38 Table 3.1: The distribution of Norwegian phonological variants amongst the speaker………53 Table 4.1: Survey 1: Speaker nationality unknown…………………………………………..61 Table 4.2: Survey 2: Speaker nationality known……………………………………………..63 Table 4.3: Combined results of both surveys…………………………………………………64 Screenshot 3.1: The Likert Scale……………………………………………………………..57 viii List of abbreviations RP – Received Pronunciation/Standard British English GA – General American UK – The United Kingdom USA – The United States of America NZE – New Zealand English NYC – New York City AAVE – African American Vernacular English ix 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Aim and scope The aim and scope of this thesis derives from a December day in 2011 when Torbjørn Jagland once again handed out the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo. His speech and vocabulary were excellent, but Norwegians mocked his ‘poor’ English pronunciation, with the media leading on in the criticism. People typically said that he was a disgrace to Norwegians, that he could not speak English and that he made us Norwegians look like fools (See Chapter 2). The whole situation felt embarrassing for me, because it most of all reminded me of witch hunting and bullying. That was when I wanted to discover what English people3 really thought about Norwegians who spoke English like Torbjørn Jagland, also compared to Norwegians who spoke English with a less noticeable Norwegian accent. The aim of this thesis is to give insight into what English people think of Norwegians speaking English, and how this view varies depending on the foreign-accentedness. How will a Norwegian speaking heavy Norwegian-accented English be perceived compared to a Norwegian who has only a light Norwegian accent in his or her English, thereby sounding more as a Standard British English speaker? Will Norwegians speaking English with a very heavy Norwegian accent be subject to stigmatising and mockery by English people? Are Norwegians esteemed in general by English people? The thesis aims to discover English attitudes towards Norwegians speaking English by using the matched guise and verbal guise techniques, with two speakers reading a text two times each. The first time the speakers read the text, they read it with a high presence of Norwegian phonological tokens (See Chapter 3). The second time they read it, they apply very few Norwegian phonological tokens, aiming for Received Pronunciation (RP)4. I have called the accent applied here ‘close to RP’5 as both speakers do have Norwegian phonological variants present. However, they aim for RP, and the accent is therefore called ‘close to RP’. Prosody is not taken into account in this thesis. The study is mainly focused around the two categories Prestige and Sociability, using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The thesis also aims to discover some more general attitudes held by English people towards Norwegians; whether or not Norwegians are seen in 3 With English people, this thesis refers to people who are native to England only. 4 Received Pronunciation (RP) is used as the term for Standard British English. For more details, see Chapter 3. 5 ‘Close to RP’ is to be understood as the accent Speaker A and Speaker B apply in recording 5 and 6. See Chapter 3 for more information 1