Engineering Materials Research, Applications and Advances Engineering Materials Research, Applications and Advances K.M. Gupta Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20140620 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-5798-4 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Dedicated to the loving memory of my nephew Jayant (Babul) Contents Preface ................................................................................................................xxvii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................xxix Author .................................................................................................................xxxi Basic Preliminary Information the Readers Need to Know .....................xxxiii List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................xxxix 1. Introduction to Some Recent and Emerging Materials ..........................1 1.1 Historical Perspective of Materials .....................................................1 1.1.1 Modern Perspective .................................................................1 1.2 Different Types of Engineering Materials .........................................1 1.2.1 Metals ........................................................................................2 1.2.2 Nonferrous Metals ...................................................................3 1.2.3 Ceramics ....................................................................................3 1.2.4 Organic Polymers ....................................................................3 1.2.5 Alloys .........................................................................................3 1.2.6 Composites ................................................................................3 1.2.7 Classiied Groups of Materials and Their Examples and Uses ....................................................................................4 1.3 Scale of Materials and Size of Devices ...............................................4 1.4 Requirements of Materials ...................................................................5 1.4.1 Important Properties of Materials .........................................5 1.5 Present Scenario of Advanced Materials ...........................................6 1.5.1 Futuristic Materials .................................................................7 1.6 Recent Advances in Materials Technology .......................................8 1.7 Smart Materials (or Intelligent Materials) .......................................10 1.7.1 Classiication of Smart Materials .........................................11 1.7.2 Piezoelectric Materials ..........................................................11 1.7.3 Electro-Rheostatic and Magneto-Rheostatic ......................12 1.8 Shape Memory Alloys ........................................................................13 1.8.1 Shape Memory Effect (SME) ................................................14 1.8.2 Material Systems of Different Shape Memory Alloys ......14 1.8.3 Preparation of SMA ...............................................................15 1.8.4 Applications of SMA in Different Fields ............................15 1.8.5 Current Examples of Applications of Shape Memory Alloys .......................................................................................18 1.8.6 Future Applications of SMA ................................................19 1.9 Advances in Smart Materials ............................................................19 1.9.1 Biomedical Applications as Smart Material Application ............................................................................21 1.9.2 Textile Applications as Smart Material Application .........22 vii viii Contents 1.9.3 Biotechnological Applications as Smart Material Application ..............................................................22 1.9.4 Other Smart Material Applications .....................................23 1.10 Nanotechnology ..................................................................................23 1.10.1 Processes to Prepare Nanomaterials ...................................24 1.10.2 Uses of Nanotechnology .......................................................24 1.10.3 Future Prospects ....................................................................26 1.10.4 Nano-Electromechanical Systems ......................................27 1.11 Functionally Graded Materials .........................................................28 1.11.1 Types of FGMs ........................................................................28 1.11.2 Functional Properties ............................................................29 1.11.3 Processing of FGMs ...............................................................30 1.11.4 Applications of FGMs ............................................................30 1.12 Introduction to Biomedical Materials ..............................................32 1.12.1 Desired Functional Properties of Biomedical Materials .................................................................................32 1.12.2 Some Key Applications of Biomaterials in Various Biodevices and Allied Components ....................................33 References .......................................................................................................34 2. Peculiar Materials with Fascinating Properties .....................................35 2.1 Introduction to Auxetic Materials ....................................................35 2.1.1 Types of Auxetic Materials ...................................................36 2.1.2 Positive, Zero and Negative Poisson’s Ratio (Auxetic) Materials .................................................................37 2.1.3 Effect of Anisotropy on Poisson’s Ratio ..............................38 2.1.4 Causes of Negative Poisson’s Ratio .....................................39 2.1.5 Applications of Auxetic Materials .......................................39 2.1.6 Auxetic Polymers ...................................................................40 2.1.7 Characteristics of Foamed Materials ..................................40 2.1.8 Auxetic Fibres’ Future Opportunities and Challenges .....41 2.2 Metallic Glasses ...................................................................................41 2.2.1 Interesting Amorphous Metal .............................................41 2.2.2 Unusual Properties of Metallic Glasses ..............................42 2.2.3 Materials Systems of Metallic Glasses ................................42 2.3 Whiskers ...............................................................................................43 2.3.1 Difference between Bulk, Fibre and Whisker Forms of Materials .............................................................................43 2.3.2 Effects of Size of Whiskers on Mechanical Properties of Materials .............................................................................44 2.3.3 Effects of Temperature on Properties of Whiskers ...........45 2.4 Intermetallic Compounds and Intermediate Compounds ...........45 2.4.1 Valency Intermetallic Compounds ......................................46 2.4.2 Electron Intermetallic Compounds .....................................46 Contents ix 2.4.3 Deinite Radii Ratio Intermetallic Compound ..................46 2.4.4 Intermediate Compounds (or Phases) ................................46 2.5 Emerging High-Pressure Materials and Technologies for the Future ...............................................................47 2.5.1 High-Pressure Synthesis and Development of Fascinating Materials ............................................................48 2.5.2 Meaning of High Pressure ...................................................49 2.5.3 Advances in High-Pressure Methodology .........................49 2.5.4 Magical Effects of High-Pressure Techniques on Properties of Materials ..........................................................50 2.5.5 High-Pressure Mechanical (Superhard) Materials ...........50 2.5.6 Low-Compressibility and High Bulk Modulus Solid .......51 2.5.7 High-Pressure Electronic and Optoelectronic Materials .................................................................................52 2.5.8 Development of High-Pressure Superconductors .............52 References .......................................................................................................53 3. Amorphous Materials and Futuristic Scope of Plastics .......................55 3.1 Introduction to Organic Materials ....................................................55 3.2 Difference between Monomers and Polymers ................................55 3.3 Degree of Polymerization ..................................................................57 3.3.1 Geometry of Polymeric Chain .............................................57 3.4 Additives in Polymers ........................................................................57 3.5 Various Types of Plastics and Their Applications ..........................60 3.5.1 Thermosetting Plastics ..........................................................60 3.5.2 Thermoplastics .......................................................................60 3.5.3 Comparison between Thermosets and Thermoplasts .....62 3.6 Polymeric Fibres ..................................................................................63 3.6.1 Properties of Various Synthetic and Natural Fibres .........63 3.7 Mechanical Behaviour of Plastics .....................................................63 3.8 Rubber ...................................................................................................65 3.8.1 Different Types of Processed Natural Rubber ...................65 3.8.2 Synthetic Rubber ....................................................................66 3.9 Elastomer ..............................................................................................66 3.9.1 Method of Producing Elastomer from Raw Rubber .........67 3.9.2 Vulcanizing Agents ...............................................................67 3.10 Behaviour of Polymers under Different Situations ........................69 3.11 Recent Advances and Futuristic Scope of Plastics .........................69 3.11.1 Expanding Plastics ................................................................69 3.11.2 Conducting Polymers ............................................................70 3.11.3 Polymers in Electronics .........................................................70 3.11.4 Thermoplast-Thermoset Plastics ..........................................70 3.11.5 Liquid Crystal Polymers .......................................................71 3.11.6 Photocurable Polymers .........................................................71 x Contents 3.11.7 Biomedical Polymers .............................................................71 3.11.8 Polymer Foams .......................................................................72 3.12 Photorefractive Polymers ...................................................................73 3.13 Wood .....................................................................................................73 4. Structures and Applications of Ceramics, Refractories and Glasses, etc. ............................................................................................77 4.1 Ceramic Materials ...............................................................................77 4.1.1 Basic Ceramic Structure ........................................................77 4.2 Types of Ceramics ...............................................................................78 4.3 Refractories ..........................................................................................78 4.3.1 Refractoriness .........................................................................80 4.3.2 Types of Refractories .............................................................80 4.3.3 Properties of Refractories .....................................................80 4.4 Silica and Silicates ...............................................................................81 4.4.1 Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Forms of Silica ..............81 4.4.2 Coniguration of Minerals ....................................................81 4.5 Applications of Ceramics ...................................................................82 4.6 Mechanical Behaviour of Ceramics ..................................................83 4.6.1 Other Behaviour of Ceramics ...............................................84 4.7 Electrical Behaviour of Ceramics ......................................................85 4.8 Processing of Ceramics ......................................................................85 4.8.1 Glass-Forming Processes ......................................................85 4.9 Particulate Forming Processes ..........................................................87 4.10 Glasses ..................................................................................................88 4.10.1 Glass-Forming Constituents ................................................88 4.10.2 Devitriied Glass ....................................................................88 4.11 Types of Glasses ..................................................................................89 4.11.1 Soda-Lime Glasses .................................................................89 4.11.2 Lead Glasses ...........................................................................90 4.11.3 Borosilicate Glasses ...............................................................90 4.11.4 High-Silica Glasses ................................................................90 4.11.5 Photochromic and Zena Glasses .........................................90 4.12 Perovskite Structures (or Mixed Oxides) .........................................90 4.13 RCC .......................................................................................................91 4.13.1 Ingredients of RCC ................................................................91 4.13.2 Reinforcing Materials ............................................................92 4.13.3 Advantages of RCC ................................................................93 4.14 Clays and Clay-Based Ceramics .......................................................93 4.15 Chemically Bonded Ceramics ...........................................................93 4.16 Applications of Ferroelectrics............................................................95 5. Polymeric Composite Materials: Types and Mechanics .......................97 5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................97 5.2 Laminated Composites ......................................................................97