AD-AO12 E(cid:127);' ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK: ENVIRONMENTAL SERIES PART TWO, NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND APRIL 1975 DISTRIBUTED BY: Naloml Technical ldm*n Sevic "U.S . iEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE P AUC PAMPHLET AMCP 106-116 211100O ENGINEERING DESIGN, HANDBOOK 0 K ENVIW" 7y . ENVlRONMb.•. FACTORS HEADQUARTERS, US ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND APRIL 1975 NATIONAL TEChNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE 50flM614 V& 22131 >+N+ -.a- ,W.... -n +-t'-- &-.'4 ..-. . n.4-,4sv+""j-,..a.".,j'-.(cid:127).-"'"." ,b a........... '"+.+ ....... ......... ..... . .. ... .____"___-_ AMCP 706-116 ' (cid:127)DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY HEADQUARTERS US ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND 5001 EISENHOWER AVENUE, ALEXANDRIA, VA 22333 A AMC PAMPHLET NO. 706-116 15 April 1175 ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK ENVIRONMENTAL SERIES, PART TWO (cid:127) NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS TABLE OF CONTENTS Paragraph Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ................. xiii LIST OF TABLES ......................... xxv PREFACE ............................... xxxi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1-I Introduction ............................. 1-1 CHAPTER 2. TERRAIN 2- 1 Introduction ............................. 2-1 2-2 Engineering Geology ....................... 2-1 2-2,1 Soil ................................... 2-2 2-2.2 Rocks ................................. 2-7 2-2.2.1 Igneous Rocks .......................... 2-7 2-2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks ...................... 2-15 2-2.3 Structural Features ....................... 2-17 2--2.4 Ground Water ........................... 2-20 2-2.5 Surface Water ........................... 2-24 2-2.6 Glacial Geology .......................... 2-25 2-3 Terrain Description ......................... 2-26 2-3.1 Mineral (Inorganic) Soil .................... 2-27 2--3.2 Organic Terrain ......................... 2-28 2-3.3 Soil Mechanics ............. ............. 2--32 2-3.3.1 Properties of Soils ....................... 2-34 2-3.3.2 Empirical Pressure-Sinkage Relationships 2-37 2-3.3.3 Determination of Sinkage Equation Con- stants ................................ 2- 39 2-3.3.4 Slip Equation ........................... 2-39 2--3.3.5 Cone Index (Cl) ......................... 2-40 2-3.3.6 Prediction of Vehicle Performance...... ...... 2-40 i'' t M0 -1 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.) Paragraph Page 2-43 4 Data Display ............................ 2-43 2-3.4.1 World Map%. ....... .................... 2-43 2-3.4.2. Areal and Linear Terrain Maps .......... ..... 2-43 2-3.41.211 Nomenclature.......................... 2-53 2 -3.4.2.2 Values Used in Describing Terrain Units ........ 2-55 2-3.4.2.3 Examples.............................. 2-60 2-344.3 Power Spectral Density (PSD) Plots........... 2-60 2-3.5 Aerial Photography........................ 2-66 2-3.5.1 Resolving Power......................... 2-66 2-3.5.2 Multispec.traIl Photography ......... 2-69 2-.3.5.3 Color Distortion Photography ................ 2-70 2-3.5.4 Polarized Light Photography . . ........ 2-71 2-3.5.5 Infrared Photography................... 2-72 2-4 Measurements .................... ........ 2-73 2-4.1 Soil Particle Classification ................... 2-73 2-4.2 Moisture Content......... ............. 2-75 2-4.3 Grain Size Distribution ........ ............. 2-76 2-4.4 Density ................................ 2-78 2-4.5 Atterbcrg Limits.......................... 2-80 2-4.6 Soil Strength............................. 2-81 Compression ........................... 2-81 -2-4.6.1 2-4.6.2 Shear................................. 2-82 2-4.6.3 Penetration ............................ 2-83 2--47 Consolidation............................ 2-85 2-4.8 Pirmeability ......... I...................2-86 2-4.9 Compaction............................. 2-88 2-4.10 Seismicity .............................. 2-89 2-4.11 Geometry .......................... I.... 2-89 2-4.12 Remote Sensors .......................... 2-90 2-5 Effects................................. 2-96 2-5.1 Construction ............................ 2-96 2-5.2 Trafticability ............................. 2-96 2-5.2.1 Flotation.............................. 2-101 2-5.2.2 Soil Traction........................... 2-109 2-5.2.3 External Resistance ...................... 2-109 2-5.2.4 Drawbar Pull........................... 2-110 2-5.2.5 Other Factors (Terrain Geometry, Vegetation, Rivers).......................#........2-110 2-5.3 Contour Effects...... #................... 2.-122 2-6 Design ................................. 2-123 2-7 Testing and Simulation ..................... 2.-127 2-8 Specifications and Standards ................. 2-131 References........... #....... ........... 2-131 CHAPTER 3. TEMPERATURE 3-1 Introduction and Description ............ 3-1 3-2 Natural Temperature Environment .............. 3-7. AMCP 70&116 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.) Paragraph Page 4 3--2.1 Terrestrial Temperature Controls ............. 3-7 3-2.1.1 Insolation ............................... 3-8 3--2.1.2 Surface Temperature Controls .............. 3-13 3.-2.1.2.1 Forest Temperatures................... 3-14 3-2.1.2.2 Soil Temperatures.,..................... 3-16 3-2.1.2.3 Urban heat Islands ..................... 3-19 3-2.1.3 Altitude ............................. 3-20 3-2,1.4 Circulation ..................... 3-21 3--,2.2 Thermal Budget ........................... 3-22 3-,2.3 Temperature Data Limitations ............... 3-22 3-2.4 Mean Temperature Data .......... ......... 3-25 3-3-2.5 World Temperature Extremes .... ......... 3-43 "3-2.5.1 Cold Regions ......................... 3,-43 3-2.5.2 Hot Regions .......................... 3-50 "3--2.5.3 Soil and Water ......................... 3-51 3-3 Induced Temperature Environment ........... . 3-53 3-4 Measurement and Instrumentation ............. 3-60 3-4.1 Temperature Measuring Instruments ........... 3-64 3-4.1.1 Liquid-in-glass Thermometers ............... 3-67 3--4.1 .2 Bimetallic Thermometers and Thermographs 3-68 3-4.1.3 Resistance Thermometers .................. 3-70 3-4.1.4 Thermoelectric Thermometers ............... 3-70 . 3-4.1.5 Acoustical Thermometers .................. 3-71 3-4.1.6 Radiation Thermometry ................... 3-71 3-4.1.7 Chemical Kinetic Thermometric Devices ....... 3-74 3--4.2 Meteorological Temperature Instrumentation and Measurement . ......................... 3-75 3.-.4.2.1 Surface Air Temperature .................. 3-75 3 -4.2.2 Soil Temperature ......................... 3-76 3-4.2.3 Sea-surface Thermometers ................. 3-77 3-4.2.4 Accuracy Requirements for Meteorological In- struments ............................. 3-77 3-4.2.5 Measurement Errors ....................... 3-79 3--5 Effects on Materiel ........................ 3-80 3-5.1 Effects of High Temperature on Materials ........ 3-81 3-5.1.1 Metals ............................... 3-83 3-5.1.2 Nonmetallic Miaterials ..................... 3-83 r4 3-5.2 Effects of Low Temperatures on Materials ....... 3-84 3-5.2.1 Metals..............................3-84 3-5.2.2 Nonmetallic Materials ..................... 3-85 3-5.3 Effects of Temperature on Components ....... 3-86 4 3-5.4 Effects of Thermal Shock..................3-93 3-5.5 Effects of Temperature in Combination With Other Environmental Factors ............... 3-93 .3-6 Design ........ (t..................... 3-95 3-7 Testing .................................. 3-100 . 3-7.1 Test Procedures ........................ 3-102 Sii :I. .I. .. "' i i]' i" .".' ......... . ...i l i 'li r' . ... I (cid:127) AM 1P70&.116 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.) Paragraph Page 3--7.2 Test Facilities ........................... 3-105 3-8 Specifications ............................. 3-108 References ........................... 3-108 CHAPTER 4. HUMIDITY 4-1 Introduction ...................... 4-1 4-2 Thermodynamic Description and Definitions 4-2 4-2.1 Vapor Pressure ............................ 4-3 4-2.2 (cid:127) Relative Humidity ....................... 4-6 , 4-2.3 Mixins Ratio and Specific Humidity ........... 4-6 4-2.4 Absolute Humidity ........................ 4-7 4-2.5 Mole Fraction ................ ........... 4-7 4-2.6 Saturation and Supersaturation ............... 4-7 4-2.7 Dewpoint Temperature and Wet-bulb Tem- perature ................................ 4-10 4-2.7.1 Dewpoint Temperature ................... 4-10 4-2,7.2 Wet-bulb Temperature ..................... 4-10 4-2.8 Latent Heats and Phase Changes .............. 4-11 4-3 Distribution of Atmospheric Water Vapor ....... 4-13 4-3.1 General Patterns .......................... 4-15 4-3.1.1 Latitudinal Variations ..................... 4-15 4-3.1.2 Vertical Distribution ...................... 4-17 4-3.1.3 Diurnal Variations ....................... 4-20 4--3.2 Geographic Distribution of Water Vapor ........ 4-21 4-4 Water Vapor In Enclosures .................. 4-47 4-5 Measurement and Instrumentation ............. 4-47 4-5.1 Thermodynamic (Psychrometric) Method ....... 4-48 4-5.2 Hygroscopic Substances Method .............. 4-52 4-5.3 Condensation Method (Dewpoint Hygrometer) ... 4-55 4-5.4 Infrared Absorption Method ................. 4-57 4-5.5 Calibration .............................. 4-58 4--6 Effects on Materials ........................ 4-58 4-6.1 Me tals ................................. 4-61 4-6.2 Elastomers ............................... 4-62 4-6.2.1 Plastics ................................ 4-62 4-6.2.2 Rubber ................................ 4-63 4-6.3 Coatings ................................. 4-64 4-6.4 Textiles ................................. 4-64 4-6.5 Wood .............................. 4-65 4-6.,6 Paper ................................... 4-65 4-6.7 Optical Parts and Assemblies ................ 4-67 4-6.8 Other Material Classes ...................... 4-67 4-6.9 Combined Environmental Effects ............. 4-68 4-7 Design ................................... 4-71 4-7.1 Climatic Design Areas ................. 4--71 iv I ~AMCP 706&118 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.) Paragraph Page 4-7.2 Simultaneous Occurrence of High Temperature and High Humidity ......................... 4-71 4-7.3 Prevention and Control .................... 4-73 4-8 Testing and Simulation ................... 4-76 4-8.1 Test Chambers ................ 4-76 4-8.2 Test Procedures and Evaluation. '4-7.9. 4-83 Test Ranges......................... 4-80- 4-8.4 Specifications ............... .......... 4-80 Reference .s............................ 4-80 CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE 5-1 Introduction and Definitions ................. 5-1 5-2 The Natural Pressure Environment ............. 5-2 5-2.1 Standard Atmosphere ....-........ 5-5 ........ 5-2.2 Pressure Reports ......................... 5-6 5-2.3 Pressure Distribution ...................... 5-13 S-2.3.1 Sea-level Pressure ........................ 5-14 5-2.3.2 Pressure Distribution With Altitude and Latitude .............................. 5-17 5-2.3.3 Pressure Extremes ............ .......... 5-17 5-3 Measurement and Instrumentation ............. 5-20 5-3.1 Mercurial Barometers ..................... 5-20 S-3.2 Aneroid Barometers ....................... S-21 .5-3.3 Hypsometer .................. ..... 5-22 5-3.4 Manometer ............................. 5-22 p 5-3.5 Strain Gage ............................ 5-22 5-4 Effects on Materiel ....................... 5-22 5-4.1 Single Environmental Factor ................ 5-22 5-4.1.1 Combustion .......................... 5-22 5-4.1.2 Lubricity ........................... 5-27 5-4.1.3 Dielectric Breakdown Properties of Air ........ 5-28 5-4.1.4 Heat Transfer ......................... 5-30 5-4.1.5 Vaporization Processes ....... .......... 5-30 5-4.1.6 Effects of Pressure Differenti Is ............. 5-30 5-4.2 Combined Environmental Efl cts .......... 5-31 5-5 Guidance for Design .................. 5-33 5-5.1 Low-pressure Regions ..................... 5-33 5-5.2 Protection and Control ................ 5-33 5-6 'resting and Simulation ..... .......... 5-37 5-6.1 Test Objectives ......................... 5-37 5-6.2 Field vs Laboratory Testing ................. 5-37 5-6.3 Test Procedures ......................... 5-38 5-6.4 Test Ranges ............ ................ 5-38 5-6.5 Simulation Equipment .................... Z-38 References ............................... 5-39 V AMCPX0,116 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.) Paragraph Page CHAPTER 6, SOLAR RADIATION 6-1 Definition and Introduction' .................. 6-4 6-2 Units of Measurement ....................... 6-2 6-3 Radiation Physics .......................... 6-5 6-4 Characteristics of Solar Radiation .............. 6-8 6-4.1 Solar Constant and Spectrum ............... 6-8 6-4.2 Geometric Factors ......................... 6-10 6-4.3 Atmospheric Absorption and Reflection ....... 6-19 6-4.4 Radiative Processes at the Surface ............. 6-23 6-5 Distribution of Solar Radiation ............... 6-29 6-5.1 Geographic and Temporal Distribution ......... 6-29 6-5.2 Spectral Distribution ....................... 6-39 6-6 Measurement and Instrumentation ............. 6-39 6-6.1 Sunshine DTvration Recorders ................ 6-47 6-6,2 Sunshine Intensity Measurement .............. 6-49 6-6.2.1 Pyrheliometers .............. .... 6-49 6-6.2.2 Pyranometers ....................... .... 6-51 6-6.3 Longwave (Terrestrial) Radiation Measurement,,, 6-53 6-7 Effects of Solar Radiation .................... 6-55 6-7.1 Thxtiles ................................. 6-57 6-7.1.1 Natural Fibers ........................... 6-57 6-7.1,2 Synthetic Fibers ......................... 6-58 6-7.2 Paper ................................... 6-60 6-7.3 Plastics ........ ...... ................. 6-60 o 6-7.4 Rubber ................................. 6-61 • 6-7.5 Surface Coatings ......................... 6-64 6--8 Design ................................... 6-65 6-9 Testing for Solar Radiation Effects ............. 6-66 I 6-9.1 Test Range .............................. 6-67 6-9.2 Simulation Testing ......................... 6-67 References ............................... 6-69 CHAPTER 7. RAIN 7-1 Introduction and Description ................. 7-I 7-2 Properties of Rain .......................... 7-3 7-2.1 Raindrop Shape ........................... 7-3 7-2.2 Raindrop Size ............................ 7-4 7-2.3 Mass ................................... 7-4 7-2.4 Raindrop Size Distribution .................. 7-4 7-2.5 Concentration ............................ 7-4 7-2.6 Liquid Water Content ....................... 7-9 7-2.7 Rainfall Intensity ......................... 7-11 7--2,8 Raindrop Velocity ......................... 7--17 7-2,9 Impact Energy and Pressure ................. 7-17 7-2.10 Physical and Chemical Properties ............. 7-21 vi . TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't) Paragraph Page • 7-3 Rainfall Distribution ...................... 7-24 7-3.1 General Patterns ........... ............. 7-24 7-3.1.1 Convective Rain ........................ 7-24 7-3.1.2 Cyclonic Rain ......................... 7-25 7-3.1.3 Orographic Rain ....... ...... 7-25 7-3.1.4 Cold and Warm Rains .................... 7-25 7-3.1.5 Vertical Distribution ................... 7-25 7-3.1.6 Frequency and Intensity ... .......... 7-25 7-3.2 Rainfall Data ...................... 7-29 7-4 Measurements and Instrumentation ............. 7-19 7-4.1 Types of Instruments ...................... 7-39 7-4.12 Limitations ........................... 7-40 7-5 Effects on Materiel ......................... 7-40 7-6 Design, Simulation, Testing, and Specifications 7-47 7-6.1 Design ............................... 7-47 7-6.2 Simulation ............................ 749 *7-6.3 ITesting................................ 7-S1 7-6.4 Specifications .................... 7-54 References ........................... 7-54 CHAPTER 8. SOLID PRECIPITATION 8-1 Introduction and Description ................. 8-1 8-2 Characteristics .................. 8-1 8-2.1 Properties of Snow ........................ 8-3 [ 8-2.1.1 Precipitant Snow ........................ 8-3 " 8-2.1.2 Deposited Snow ........................ 8-4 8-2.1.2.1 Mechanical Properties o' Snow ............ 8-6 8-2.1.2.2 Thermal Properties of Snow ............... 8-19 8-2.1,2.3 Electrical Properties of Snow .............. 8-21 8-2.1.2.4 Optical Properties of Snow ................ 8-23 8-2.2 Properties of Hail ........................ 8-25 8-2.3 Properties of Glaze, Rime, and Hoarfrost ........ 8-26 8-3 Occurrence of Solid Precipitants ............... 8-26 8-3,1 Snowfall and Accumulation ................. 8-26 8-3.2 Hailstorm Frequency ....................... 8-37 8-3.3 Glaze, Rime, and Hoarfrost ................. 8-38 8-4 Measurements and Instrumentation ............. 8-38 8-5 Effects of the Solid Precipitants ............... 8-45 8-5.1 Materiel Problems Caused by Snow ............ 8-47 8-5.2 Materiel Problems Caused by Hail .............. 8-52 8-5.3 Materiel Problems Caused by Glaze, Rime, and Hoarfrost ............................... 8-52 8-5.4 Synergism of Environmental Factors ........... 8-53 8-6 Design Guidance ........................... 8-54 8-6.1 Snow Removal ...................... 8-54 8-5e.2 Oversnow Transport ....................... 8-63 vii AMCP 7-116 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.) Paragraph Page 8-6.3 Control of Drifting Snow ................ 8 70 8-•6,4 Snow as a Construction Material .............. 8-79 8-7 Testing, Simulation, and Specifications .......... 8-84 8--7.1 Test Ranges .................... ......... 8-85 8-7.2 Simulation Equipment ..................... 8-85 8-7.3 Specifications .. .............. ... . 8-86 References ............................... 8--86 CHAPTER 9. FOG AND WHITEOUT 9 _- Introduction .............................. 9- 1 9-2 Characteristics of Fog ....................... 9-i 9..2,1 Types of Fog ............................. 9-2 9-2.1.1 Evaporation Fogs ......................... 9-2 9-2.1.2 Cooling Fogs ............................ 9-2 9--2.1.3 Mi xing Fogs ............................. 9-2 9-. 2.1.4 Other Fog Terminology .................... 9-3 9-2.1.5 Ice Fog ................................ 9-3 9-- 2.1.6 Fog Composition ......................... 9-3 9-.22.2 Properties of Fog ......................... 9-3 9-2.2,1 Droplet Size ............................. 9-6 9-2.2.2 Ice Crystal Size .......................... 9-7 9-2.2.3 Liquid Water Content (LWC) ............... 9_-8 9-2.2.4 Droplet Concentration ..................... 9-9 9-2.2.5 Visibility .............................. 9-10 9--2.2.5.1 Visibility-restricting Parameters ............. 9-10 9-2.2.5.2 Visual Range .......................... 9-12 9-2.2,6 Chemical Composition ..................... 9-13 9-2.2.7 Vertical Depth ..... .................... . 9-15 9-2.3 Occurrence of Fog ......................... 9-15 9-3 Whiteout ................................ 9-30 9-4 Measurements and Instrumentation ............. 9-32 9-4.1 Prediction .............................. 9-32 9-4.2 Visibility ................................ 9-34 9-4.3 Droplet Measurement ...................... 9-35 9-4,4 Chemical Composition ..................... 9-36 9-4.5 Vertical Depth ........................... 9-36 9-5 Operational Considerations ................... 9-36 9-6 Fog Dissipation ............................ 9-37 9-7 Testing and Simulation ...................... 9-39 9-8 Specifications ............................. 9-39 References ............................... 9-40 CHAPTER 10. WIND 10.-I Introduction .............................. 10-1 10--2 Atmospheric Motion ........................ 10-4 viii i i i I I l I , i