< previous page page_15 next page > Page 15 payment of the jizya, or fighting. 63 Treaties or agreements must be scrupulously observed.64 Moral limits are to be observed in warfare, including avoidance of killing noncombatants such as the elderly, women, and children and of destroying fruit trees, livestock, and buildings.65 These limitations are further elaborated in the Islamic law.66 Extensive rules are also established in the hadith* for dividing the spoil, with one-fifth going to the government, as outlined in the Qur'an*.67 As in the Qur'an*, tactical advice is also given in the hadith*. The Muslims should fight in close ranks. They should be patient and persistent.68 They must avoid trying to grab the spoils prematurely,69 which was a serious temptation for medieval armies. Troops should make sure they have adequate provisions.70 They must also, at all times, obey their commanding officer, unless he orders something in contravention to the divine law.71 Thus, the individual free-for-all of bedouin raiding was out; disciplined, committed order was in. In general, the impression of the jihad* that one gets from the Qur'an* and hadith* is of a highly motivated mass ideology directed toward a single goal. Indeed, the ideology of Islam anticipated modern ideologies in its mass appeal and means of creating enthusiasm. This enthusiasm was probably contagious and did not strictly rely either on promises of paradise or expectations of worldly gain, though both of these were present to help ignite the movement at the first, and both continued to play a role. Nothing that had gone before had ever resembled the Muslim mobilization methods, especially as far as the Arabs were concerned. No wonder the non-Muslim empires of the time were outclassed and tended to be easily dominated and defeated for over a century. Not only the teachings embodied in the Qur'an* and hadith*, but even the structure of the communal worship required of Muslims five times a day reflected the military commitment and helped to maintain the enthusiasm for the jihad*. Except perhaps for details, the structure of this worship must be early and therefore reinforces our evidence from the Qur'an* about the paramount importance of the jihad* in earliest Islam. Muslim males assemble in the mosques; females stay at home. The men line up for worship in rows, as if in a battle formation. Being in the first row is considered more meritorious than the back rows, as in battle.72 The word used for row in worship is saff*; exactly this word is used in the Qur'an* for a battle rank or formation.73 During worship services, absolute obedience to the leader (imam*) is required, as well as the imitation of all his actions in unison. Just as the pews in a church are sometimes said to < previous page page_15 next page > If you like this book, buy it! < previous page page_14 next page > Page 14 with the men in noncombatant roles with equal spiritual reward implied, but without shares in the spoil. 39 Building a mosque to transmit the knowledge and religion of Islam is called the best kind of jihad*.40 Finally, in a tradition which spiritualizes and dematerializes the concept, the true fighter in God's path (mujahid*) is described as he who struggles against himself by himself.41 A noncanonical tradition even calls this the greater jihad* in comparison to the military one, which is lesser.42 However, the overwhelming majority of hadiths* refer to the military struggle when they use the term jihad*. Other hadiths* state that the reward of going forth to fight in God's path is either paradise if one is killed or dies, spiritual reward for the effort and hardship involved, or spoil that is won from the enemy.43 But the greatest reward is paradise for martyrs, that is, those killed while struggling in God's path, about which there are many hadiths*.44 These include the famous hadith* that paradise is in the shadow of swords.45 Dying as a martyr completely wipes out one's sins.46 Other hadiths*, however, suggest that the moral state of the martyr at death also determines his degree in paradise.47 Both a warrior in jihad* who dies later in bed or a person who migrates for the sake of God and dies peacefully can also be considered martyrs.48 Boring military duties such as garrison and guard duty also bring great spiritual rewards even if they involve no fighting.49 A Muslim who dies from plague,50 abdominal disease, drowning, or a collapsing building, also dies a martyr.51 Other versions add to this list those who are burnt alive, fall off a mountain, or are eaten by carnivorous beasts, and women who die as virgins, when pregnant, or in childbirth.52 Jihad* is the third most important duty of a Muslim after regular worship and filial piety,53 or the second after regular worship.54 Elsewhere, however, it is considered the very best work.55 Holding back and cowardice are reproved.56 Jihad* is to be waged only to exalt God's word; other motives either detract from an effort or disqualify it from being real jihad*.57 As for unbelievers, they must be combatted until they accept God's unity, the cardinal tenet of Islam.58 Such people do not necessarily have to be Muslims, however, but can keep their religions if they are people of the book. Other traditions suggest, though, that the struggle must be kept up until they also perform salah* (Islamic worship) and pay zakah* (a tax paid only by Muslims).59 Polytheists should not be left in Arabia.60 In other versions, Christians and Jews also should not be left there.61 Opponents should be invited to embrace Islam before the Muslims launch any assault.62 Another version adds that they should be given the choice between Islam, < previous page page_14 next page > If you like this book, buy it! < previous page page_16 next page > Page 16 represent the benches of the oarsmen in a galley, all pulling in unison, so the rows in the mosque represent the Muslim battle ranks in the struggle to establish God's rule in the earth. According to Jandora, the communal worship ''must have inculcated discipline and teamwork, as does modern close order drill." 74 In addition to the worship itself, the physical layout of the early mosque building reflects the military mission of the jihad*, as well. The earliest known mosques were large, much larger than most later ones, even though the number of Muslims at the beginning was less than later on. Probably, the mosques in each city were designed to accommodate all the Muslim fighters located there. Thus, the great mosque in al-Kufa* was over one hundred meters square,75 enclosing a space of over ten thousand square meters, enough to accommodate nearly twenty thousand worshipers closely packed together. Such a number would represent at least a substantial proportion, if not all, of the troops stationed at al-Kufa* when that city was founded.76 Therefore, it would appear that attendance at mosque was mandatory, which conforms to the military image, just as close-order drills are also mandatory. Furthermore, there was at first only one central mosque in each military settlement.77 This kept the troops in the same place, bringing all the tribes and clans together for communal worship, rather than allowing them their own separate mosques.78 That there was originally only one congregational mosque in each place is suggested by the Shi'i* tradition still in force to this day, which says that Friday 'worship was only to be held in one place of worship in each locale. Among Sunnis*, the same is suggested by the designation of one great mosque in each city as the masjid jami'*, or the congregational mosque for worship on Friday (al-jum'a), as in India. Having only one major mosque in a settlement enabled it also to function as mobilization center and parade ground. Additionally, the mosque could provide a military redoubt if necessary, much like a fortified Roman camp, which also tended to be square or rectangular, like the early mosque. Indeed, the fact that the original mosque of al-Kufa* was surrounded by a trench rather than a wall perhaps suggests a military purpose of basic fortification, particularly in view of the use of the trench in defending al-Madina* in 5/627.79 The exhortations of the Friday sermon to self-sacrifice in God's path were paralleled on the battlefield by the qussas* and qurra'*. Their role was to encourage the troops to seek the reward of paradise by either winning or else dying as martyrs, and they recited Qur'anic* verses to that effect in a loud voice.80 Finally, the early mosque was always associated with the house of the amir or governor, who, as military < previous page page_16 next page > If you like this book, buy it! < previous page page_13 next page > Page 13 only made in consideration of a payment (jizya), which symbolizes their submission. 24 Presumably, this payment then belongs to the reward of the Muslim fighters, who should receive four-fifths of it.25 Jizya should only be taken from peoples of the book, Jews, Christians, Sabeans, and perhaps Zoroastrians,26 while idolaters may be slain wherever they are found and must be fought unless they accept Islam.27 On the other hand, non-Muslims are not to be forced to embrace Islam.28 Muslims are not to fight against one another.29 The Qur'an* even advises the Muslims on military tactics. Especially, they are not to flinch or become weak when the fighting gets rough, but to endure patiently.30 They should fight in a solid battle formation (saff*).31 This verse suggests the use of military tactics quite different from those of the stereotypical raiding traditions of nomadic Arab tribes. The causes for the near defeat at the Battle of Uhud in 3/625 are analyzed in some detail.32 But the emphasis is most strongly on ideological commitment to fighting in God's path, a doctrine highlighted by the repeated promises of otherworldly rewards.33 The second main source of Islamic religious and legal practice, the hadith* traditions attributed to the Prophet, supports what the Qur'an* says on the jihad*. Even though the authenticity of their attribution to the Prophet has been challenged by some Western scholars, it is hardly disputable that the hadith* corpus is relevant to the reign of Hisham*, at which time much of it must have been in circulation, and at least beginning to be recorded in writing, if indeed that process was not already considerably advanced. Certainly, as the hadith* represents what the Islamic community chose to remember about the Prophet's words and deeds, it also must reflect, on the whole, the norms of that community, at least by the end of Umayyad rule. Also, the tone of the hadith* concerned with jihad* certainly fits what is known of the jihad* of the Umayyad period better than it does that of the 'Abbasids*. According to the hadith*, waging jihad* in God's path is specifically defined as a duty which every able-bodied Muslim [male] must either perform or try to perform. In particular, a Muslim must respond to the call to arms if called upon.34 The Prophet is said to have drawn up a list of all male Muslims for military purposes,35 suggesting universal conscription, or at least the possibility of it. However, spending to support the jihad* effort is equated with actual participation.36 Certain other nonmilitary types of jihad* are also acknowledged by the hadith*. Thus, performing the pilgrimage to Makka is equated with performing the war jihad*.37 The women's jihad* is the pilgrimage,38 though women may also go out to the jihad* < previous page page_13 next page > If you like this book, buy it! < previous page page_17 next page > Page 17 commander, most naturally had to be available to his troops at a moment's notice. 81 Actually, a number of interesting parallels exist between the mosque-governor's palace complexes in' al-Kufa*, al-Basra*, and Jerusalem on the one hand, and Roman legionary fortresses of the imperial period on the other. Just as governor's palace and mosque were joined in the early Muslim cities, the Roman commander's palace, called the praetorium, was directly adjacent to a building for the assembly and review of the troops, called the principia.82 The principia consisted of a very large enclosed courtyard surrounded by a colonnade, like the early mosques. The courtyard might be covered with gravel, as in the early mosques.83 On the side adjacent to the commander's palace stood a basilica with three naves that ran the width of the courtyard; this is analogous to the covered part of the mosque near the mihrab*.84 Its space was just large enough for most of the troops to crowd together in it, just as the early mosques were able to hold most, if not all, of the troops of the locale. In both cases, the dimensions of the building might be on the order of one hundred meters square.85 In the principia, the troops were assembled to hear edifying speeches, and it was there that the commander dispensed justice, just as in the early mosques.86 In both cases, it was the military commander who spoke to the troops from a raised platform (tribunal) or pulpit (rainbar). Also, the troops would be assembled to swear allegiance to new rulers in just such places.87 The religious symbols of the Roman legion were stored in its principia, where some religious ceremonies also probably took place. In addition, the treasury of the troops was kept in the principia, as apparently was the case with the earliest Muslim mosques.88 The Roman and the Muslim troops probably received their pay respectively in the principia and mosque, as well. Likewise, the mosque was the religious center of the city. While there is no evidence that the Muslim complexes were inspired by Roman models, the parallels do at least point to probable shared military functions. Beyond worship and mosque, the Muslim troops in the former lands of the Roman and Persian empires, from the beginning were quartered in new military camp cities called amsar* or were assigned quarters in existing towns that performed the same function. Such cities kept the troops together in a strange and possibly hostile environment, so that they could respond immediately to any emergencies. Significantly, 'Umar is said to have commanded that these cities be located so that no water separated any of them from Arabia.89 This was clearly a military consideration, as the Muslim Arabs, especially the Madinan* leadership, did not consider them- < previous page page_17 next page > If you like this book, buy it!