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FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page ii EDITOR IN CHIEF J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen James I. McCord Professor of Theology and Science, Princeton Theological Seminary EDITORS Nancy R. Howell Associate Professor of Theology and Philosophy of Religion, Saint Paul School of Theology Niels Henrik Gregersen Research Professor in Theology & Science, University of Aarhus Wesley J. Wildman Associate Professor of Theology and Ethics, Boston University Ian Barbour Consulting Editor Carleton College Ryan Valentine Editorial Assistant Princeton Theological Seminary FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page iv Encyclopedia of Science and Religion J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen © 2003 by Macmillan Reference USA. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Cover image reproduced by permission of Macmillan Reference USA is an imprint of No part of this work covered by the copyright Corbis (Shooting Stars Over the Meteor The Gale Group, Inc., a division of hereon may be reproduced or used in any Crater). 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BL240.3 .E43 2003 291.1’75—dc21 2002152471 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page v C ONTENTS Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix List of Articles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii List of Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii Synoptic Outline of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiii ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION Annotated Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 —v— FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page vi E DITORIAL AND P S RODUCTION TAFF Ray Abruzzi and Michael J. McGandy Project Editors Deirdre Graves and Christine Slovey Contributing Editors Judith Culligan Copy Editor Elizabeth Merrick Proofreader Cynthia Crippen AEIOU, Inc. Indexer Jennifer Wahi Art Director Argosy Compositor GGS Information Services Line Art Mary Beth Trimper Composition Management Evi Seoud Assistant Production Manager Rhonda Williams Buyer MACMILLAN REFERENCE USA Frank Menchacca Vice President Hélène Potter Director, New Product Development FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page vii P REFACE The dialogue between science and religion is one of the most prominent and visible discourses of our time. The complex but enduring relationship between the sciences and diverse world religions has now transformed itself into what some are calling a new scholarly field of science and religion. This multifaceted conversation has developed into a sustained and dynamic discourse with direct implications for contemporary culture. This discourse affects all religions, in both their intellectual and social dimensions. It also analyzes, supports, and constrains the global impact of the sciences of our times. TheEncyclopediaofScienceandReligionreflectsthebreathtakingscopeand pluralistic character of this ongoing dialogue. It is the most comprehensive work of its kind, and it is designed to be accessible to a wide readership from high schoolstudentstoindependentresearchersandacademics.Anyonefascinatedby the ever-evolving impact of the sciences on religious belief in a global context will find the Encyclopedia a rich resource, for the historical relationship between scienceandreligioncertainlyrangesfromharmonyandmutualsupporttostormy periods of intense conflict. In the last two decades public awareness of and interest in this complex and often contentious relationship between science and religion has reached an unprecedented level. Courses in science and religion are now taught worldwide atagreatnumberofeducationalinstitutions.Centersforthestudyofscienceand religion are actively pursuing the challenges and complexities of this dialogue; local and international societies for science and religion have been, and are being, established. There is also an exploding number of publications, journals, newsletters, and papers. Most recently, the science and religion dialogue has established an impressive new presence on the Internet. All of these issues, interests, and constituencies are reflected in the Encyclo- pediaofScienceandReligion.Thechallengingconversationbetweenthesciences andreligionsishighlightedwithentriesfocusingonissuesthatbearontopicssuch as behavioral studies and the human sciences; cognitive science and the neurosciences; computer science and information technology; physical sciences and cosmology; ecology; ethics and value theory; evolution; genetics; feminist and womanistissues;mathematics;methodology;medicine;philosophy;biology;paleontology and the anthropological sciences; and technology. World religions as —vii— FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page viii PREFACE varied as Baháhí, Buddhism, Chinese religions, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto are represented with individual entries or clusters of entries. TherearemorethanfourhundredentriesintheEncyclopediaofScienceand Religion, all arranged in alphabetical order for easy reference. The entries range in length from several thousand words on broad topics, to a hundred words or so for key terms in the various sciences and religions. The editors see this work primarily as a reflection on the most important issues in the contemporary dialogue between the sciences and religions. A glance over the list of entries, however, indicates that the Encyclopedia also covers the critical history of the relationship between science and religion and offers historical biographies of a selectnumberofimportantfigures.Allentriesguidereaderstofurthersourcesof information and exhaustive cross-references quickly and easily lead to related topics.TheauthorityoftheEncyclopediaisassuredbytheexpertswhohavewrit- ten the entries. The authors have written so as to make this Encyclopedia accessible for students in general, for the public at large, and for scholars in a variety of disciplines. In this way we have created a rich reference resource that is well suited to diverse library environments. ThefrontmatterfeaturesaSynopticOutline,coveringthecompletescopeand everyentryoftheEncyclopediaofScienceandReligion.ThepurposeofthisOut- lineistomaketheEncyclopediaevenmoreaccessiblebygroupingallentriesinto broad, topical categories. Teachers and readers are offered an organized map of the whole field of science and religion. In addition, a comprehensive Index pro- videsreaderswithyetanothermeansofaccesstothewealthofinformationcon- tainedinthesetwovolumes,whileanAnnotatedBibliographyofselectedworks introduces readers to those published works currently regarded as indispensable in the field of science and religion. The editors would like to thank Ian Barbour, one of the most prominent scholars in the field, for graciously agreeing to act as a consultant at the initial planning phase of the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. His advice was invaluable to us. We also thank the expert staff at Macmillan Reference USA for their outstanding support throughout this project. We extend our appreciation to the following persons at Macmillan: Elly Dickason, former publisher of Macmil- lan,forherinitiativeandencouragementatthebeginningofthisproject;Michael McGandy, who was a pleasure to work with, and who guided us with unfailing professionalismandexpertise;HélènePotter,whooversawtheprojectwithgreat vision, and was responsible in the end for pulling everything together; and Judy Culliganforallherhardworkandaveryprofessionallevelofcopyediting.Here at the Princeton Theological Seminary my assistant Ryan Valentine did an outstanding job. He devoted a great deal of time developing the database that was criticaltothebeginningphaseofthisprojectandlaterassistedintheeditingproc- ess. He was also responsible for preparing the Synoptic Outline and checking all cross-references. Taede Smedes did a first rate job of helping us put together the Annotated Bibliography. The editors, finally, would like to express our deep gratitude to family mem- bersandlovedoneswhosoconsistentlyacknowledgedandsupportedourwork on this project. J. WENTZEL VREDE VAN HUYSSTEEN —viii— FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page ix I NTRODUCTION The publication of the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion is a significant mile- stone marking the maturation of the contemporary dialogue between the sciences and religions. Not only does this Encyclopedia offer a massive amount of inter- disciplinary and interreligious information, but it mirrors one of the most fasci- nating stories of our time: the emergence of an extensive international discussion among scientists of various specializations, philosophers of nearly all persuasions, and religious thinkers from all the major world religions. Spectacular advances in the sciences no longer easily threaten religions around the world because the risks and devastating consequences of new technologies have problematized the formerly unquestioned ideal of scientific progress. Scientific advances still challenge basic religious convictions, however, and the intellectual representatives of the world’s religious traditions grapple with scientific knowledge more effectively and pervasively than ever before, thanks to the science-religion dialogue. Today sciences as varied as the neurosciences, ecology, and biotechnology raise ques- tions about human beings and the future of our planetary home, perhaps espe- cially for those who possess a sense of the divine. Similarly, chaos theory, quantum mechanics, and the ever-deepening understanding of the role of chance in biological systems conspire to challenge the notions of ultimate reality and divine action espoused by religious traditions and sacred texts. At the same time, partly because of the unwanted side effects of science- driventechnologies,thereisagrowingconvictionthatscienceinitselfmaynever yieldanultimatelysatisfyingexplanationofhumanlifeandtheworldweinhabit. Andyettheinformationaboutrealityproducedbythesciencesisinvaluable.Per- hapswehavetwodomainsofmeaninghere,withscienceandreligioneachruler of its own domain. Or perhaps the structures and patterns of nature disclosed by the sciences connect with the more elusive yet existentially more immediate meaning typical of religious faith. Even as the religions of the world grow more accepting of the sciences, at least some intellectuals are noting how scientific methods and aims can enhance and perhaps support religious faith. Therefore, contrarytopopularmisconceptions,therelationshipbetweenthesciencesandthe various religions at the beginning of the twenty-first century is not about conflict or confrontation only. Those who participate actively in this dialogue are often deeply committed, not only to a specific science, but also to specific religious beliefs. Even scholars who are agnostic or atheistic are taking the interaction —ix— FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page x INTRODUCTION amongsciencesandthereligionsseriouslybecausethisrelationshipinvolvestwo of the dominant cultural forces of our time. Complicated and multilayered, the relationships among the various sciences and diverse world religions are not merely adversarial,norsimply a matterofneatly separable domains ofdiscourse. In the West the success and prestige of science has had a fundamental influ- ence on the way that the voices of popular culture describe our world. As a result, relationships among the religions and the sciences have often suffered from what some intellectuals have called the modernist dilemma, where the objectiveanduniversallytrueclaimsofscienceareoftenunfairlycontrastedwith subjective and irrational religious beliefs. This has led to sharp distinctions between objective descriptions and subjective experiences, between scientific andsymbolicusesoflanguage,andbetweenempiricallyjustifiedscientifictruths andprivatelyheldreligiousopinions.Theappealofsuchstarkoppositions,however, has waned. Scientism is the term of approbation used for the attitude that takes for granted the alleged rational superiority of science and exclusive value ofthescientificmethodforgainingknowledge.Thereductionistviewsthatdefine scientismarenowbeingattackedrelentlesslybyscholarswhopointoutthatboth scientific and religious beliefs, in spite of important differences, are historically and culturally embedded and shaped by comprehensive worldviews. The polar- izationbetweeninappropriatelyreifiedandahistoricalnotionsofscienceandreli- gion is collapsing and in its place is arising an appreciation for the integrity of diversediscoursesandsocialactivities,includingthoseusuallycalledthereligions and the sciences. At least as importantly, scholars are attempting to uncover the profound rational and historical linkages that connect, as well as individuate, the religions and the sciences. These historical and philosophical exertions have shown not only that the great discoveries about the nature and history of the physicalworldhaveaffectedreligiousdiscoursesinnearlyalltheirmanifestations, but also that the claims of the various world religions about our capacity to know,theultimatemeaningofthecosmos,andtheplaceofhumanbeingsinan evolving universe often impact the way scientific inquiry is conducted. Inthecontemporarydiscussionamongthereligionsandthesciences,partic- ularlyasithastranspiredintheWest,themostinfluentialattemptatrepresenting the complex relationship between these two cultural forces has been Ian Bar- bour’s fourfold typology. Barbour describes the different ways that the sciences have actually related and might possibly relate to the religions as conflict, dialogue,independence, and integration. Many subsequent models for relating religion and science have built on the legacy of this pioneering analysis. Even as contemporary factors from cultural pluralism to postmodern philosophy suggest other ways of relating the sciences to religion, Barbour’s typology remains appli- cableandinstructive.Theliteraturetodayexpressesanincreasingawarenessthat therelationsbetweenscienceandreligioncanonlybeproperlyunderstoodifthe specific cultural, historical, and intellectual contexts have been taken into account.ThevastamountofinformationcollectedinthisEncyclopediaofScience andReligion illustrates the richness and complexity of this interpretative task. The growing conversation between science and religion that emerged with new vigor in the late twentieth century has a number of striking features. First, though once considered an esoteric field, the study of the relationship between scienceandreligionisnolongerahighlyspecializeddiscourse,openonlytothe —x— FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xi INTRODUCTION few intellectuals who are privy to the complexity of the issues involved. The science and religion debate has become a public affair. The active presence of the debate on the Internet, as well as an explosion of published newsletters, papers, books, and conferences, further enhances this high public profile. Second, whereas there are new debates and ideas within science and religion, in many waysthedialogueextendsfamiliarandlongstandingdebatesknownbydifferent names: “faith and reason” or “faith and culture” (in the West) and “pramana theory” (in South Asian debates on valid sources of knowledge). Third, not only is thescienceandreligionconversationaliveandwellinmanyculturesalloverthe worldbut,asthisEncyclopediaclearlyshows,anumberofacademiccentersand scholarly associations now concentrate their considerable intellectual and finan- cial resources on issues at the interface of science and religion. The discussion among the sciences and the religions has also found a permanent place in schools,colleges,seminaries,anduniversities.Coursesinreligionandscienceare now taught on all academic levels throughout the world, complemented by a number of high-profile endowed chairs in the field. Finally, one of the most important milestones in this ever-growing field was the founding of the Interna- tionalSocietyofScienceandReligion in August 2002 in Granada, Spain. The EncyclopediaofScienceandReligion is directed mainly at students and their teachers. They will find all of the most important issues in this field addressed in an accessible and inclusive manner. Outstanding experts from around the world have contributed to the Encyclopedia. The comprehensive list ofentriesfocusesontheprincipalsciencesandthemajorscientificdiscoveriesof our time and on all the challenging and controversial topics that have emerged from this context and have affected the world religions in different ways. Both historical and contemporary issues in science and religion are treated under the headings of the major world religions. The religions represented here include Buddhism, Baháhí, Chinese religions (Confucianism and Daoism), Christianity (Anglican, Evangelical, Lutheran, Orthodox, Pentecostalism, Radical Reformed, Reformed, Roman Catholic), Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto. The various sciencesrepresentedintheentriesofthisEncyclopediacoverawidespectrumof disciplines,suchasbehavioralstudiesandthehumansciences;cognitivescience and neuroscience; computer science and information technology; cosmology; ecology; evolutionary sciences; genetics; primatology; mathematics; medicine; the physical sciences (including chemistry and physics); and the life sciences (includingbiology,paleontology,andtheanthropologicalsciences).Thereisalso a series of entries on relevant disciplines within the humanities, including ethics and value theory; feminism; philosophy (including methodology, epistemology, philosophy of science, philosophy of religion); theology and religious thought; and technology. Thereareinteresting,ifcontroversial,reasonswhyChristiantheologianshave often taken the lead in discussing the relationship of the sciences to the religions. An unfortunate side effect of this leadership is that, at certain times and places in recentdecades,thedialoguehasseemedlimitedbythecaricaturethatonlyChris- tianityfosteredmodernscience.Butthisversionofeventsishistoricallyinaccurate and deeply misleading. The evidence is that all religious traditions and all forms of scientific work have something to gain as well as lose in the process of mutual interaction, and the historical record demonstrates profound and longstanding engagement between science and religion in all literate cultures. Selecting entries —xi—