Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion With15Figuresand2Tables Editors-in-Chief: DavidA.Leeming,Ph.D. Blanton-PealeInstitute 3West29thStreet NewYork,NY10001 USA KathrynMadden,Ph.D. NationalInstituteforthePsychotherapies 250West57thStreet,Suite501 NewYork,NY10019 USA StantonMarlan,Ph.D. PittsburghCenterforPsychotherapyandPsychoanalysis 4527WinthropStreet Pittsburgh,PA15213-3722 USA AC.I.P.CatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2009934794 ISBN:978-0-387-71801-9 TheelectronicversionwillbeavailableunderISBN978-0-387-71802-6 TheprintandelectronicbundlewillbeavailableunderISBN978-0-387-71803-3 (cid:1)SpringerScience+BusinessMediaLLC2010(USA) Allrightsreserved.Thisworkmaynotbetranslatedorcopiedinwholeorinpartwithoutthewrittenpermissionofthepublisher (SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC,233SpringStreet,NewYork,NY10013,USA),exceptforbriefexcerptsinconnectionwithreviews orscholarlyanalysis.Useinconnectionwithanyformofinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orby similarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdevelopedisforbidden. Theuseinthispublicationoftradenames,trademarks,servicemarks,andsimilarterms,eveniftheyarenotidentifiedassuch,isnottobetaken asanexpressionofopinionastowhetherornottheyaresubjecttoproprietaryrights. springer.com Printedonacid-freepaper SPIN:115287082109—543210 Preface Mr.KennethGinigersometimeagosuggestedtoDr.HollyJohnson,thenPresidentofBlanton-PealeInstitute,NewYork, NY,thatBlanton-Pealecompileanencyclopediaofpsychologyandreligion,acomprehensivereferenceworkconsisting of articles contributed by scholars of importance in the fields of religion, psychology, psychology and religion, and psychologyofreligion.Dr.Johnsonalsosawtheneedforsuchaninformationsourceandbeganplanningworkonthe projectwiththeassistanceofBlanton-Pealecolleagues,Dr.WalterOdajnykandDr.DavidA.Leeming.Longworking together with Blanton-Peale on behalf of Journal of Religion and Health, Springer Science+Business Media became publisher, with Dr.Leeming, Dr. Kathryn Madden, and Dr. Stanton Marlan named as Editors-in-Chief. Dr. Leeming becameManagingEditoroftheproject.Hehastaughtcoursesinmyth,religion,andliteratureformanyyearsandhas publishedseveralbooksonthesesubjects,includingtheOxfordCompaniontoWorldMythology,anduntilrecentlywas Editor-in-Chiefoftheaward-winningJournalofReligionandHealthandDeanofBlanton-Peale’sGraduateInstitute.He iscurrentlyPresidentofBlanton-PealeInstitute.Dr.MaddenservedasDeanandlaterPresidentofBlanton-Peale,was AssociateEditorandlaterExecutiveEditoroftheJournalofReligionandHealth,andhasrecentlypublishedDarkLight of the Soul (Lindisfarme Books). She teaches and lectures regularly and is in private practice. She received her M.A., M.Phil., and Ph.D. degrees in Psychology and Religion from Union Theological Seminary inNew York City. She has publishedmanyarticlesinherfieldandisEditorofQuadrant.Dr.Marlanisaclinicalpsychologistinprivatepractice. He is a training and supervising analyst for the Inter-Regional Society of Jungian Analysts and is President of the PittsburghSocietyofJungianAnalysts.HeisalsoAdjunctClinicalProfessorofPsychologyatDuquesneUniversityand holdsdiplomatesinbothClinicalPsychologyandPsychoanalysisfromtheAmericanBoardofProfessionalPsychology. HehasbeenEditoroftheJournalofJungianTheoryandPracticeandistheauthorofnumerousarticlesandbooksinthe fieldofJungian psychology.Parentageofthe Encyclopedia ofPsychologyandReligioncomes naturally to theBlanton- PealeInstitute.Foundedin1937byDr.NormanVincentPealeandpsychologistSmileyBlanton,theInstituteisamental healthclinicandpsychologicaltraininginstitutededicatedtotheconstructiveintegrationofreligionandpsychology. TheEncyclopediaofPsychologyandReligionprovidesacrucialnewresourceforthecollaborationandmutualillumina- tionofthesetwofields. Entriesaredrawnfromawidevarietyofreligioustraditions,notonlymodernworldreligions,suchasChristianity, Judaism,Islam,Buddhism,andHinduism,butalso,forexample,AfricanAnimism,pre-ChristianCelticandGermanic traditions,Egyptian,Greek,Gnostic,andNativeNorthAmericanandMesoamericanreligiousmovements.Approaches to the subjects demonstrate a broad range of methodologies. Each entry is intended to create a tension of meaning betweentraditionalreligioustermsandpsychologicalinterpretations.Thegoalisnottoimposethecorrectordefinitive meaning, but to explore new and latent deposits of meaning that bear implications for human self-understanding, cross-culturalinterpretation,andtherapeuticpossibilities. Occasionally,morethanonearticleonagivensubjectisincludedtopresentdifferentpointsofview.Extensivecross- referencingallowsthereadertoenhanceunderstandingofparticularsubjectsthroughdirectaccesstorelatedtopics.The EncyclopediaofPsychologyandReligionwillserveasavaluableandaccessiblereferenceworkinbothelectronicandprint versionsforacademiclibrariesandtheirpatronsandwillbeofparticularusetothegrowingcommunityofresearchers, academics, teachers, clergy, therapists, counselors, and other professionals who are involved in the developing reintegrationofthefieldsofreligionandpsychology. Acknowledgment TheEditorsandBlanton-PealeInstitutethankthemembersofSpringerScience+BusinessMediastaffinbothGermany andtheUnitedStatesfortheirsupportonthisproject.WeareparticularlygratefultoCarolBischoff,ThomasMager, SusanneFriedrichsen,HeikeRichini,andChristineHausmannfortheirconsistenthelpandsupport. DavidA.Leeming,KathrynMadden,andStantonMarlan Introduction The world’s great religions have always served as the repository of the psychological truths and values of mankind. Religionsaddressthefundamentalquestionsofhumanexistence:thepurposeandmeaningoflife;ourrelationshipwith God;thenatureofthesoul;theexistenceofevil,suffering,anddeath;ethicalbehaviorandconscience;oursearchfor happiness,redemption,andsalvation.Inpreviouscenturiestheologiansandreligiousphilosopherswerenotinclinedto differentiatebetweenmattersof‘‘soul’’or‘‘psyche.’’FiguressuchasSt.Paul,St.Augustine,MartinLuther,Pascal,and Kierkegaardwerepeopleoffaithwhoalsograppledwiththemysteriesofhumaninteriority,will,andmotivation. Inthecourseofaddressingtheseissues,everyreligionhasdevelopedadefinitionofhumannatureandexaminedour fundamentalmotivations,drives,anddesires.Religionshavebeencruciblesforthetime-testedpsychologicalprinciples thatassureasenseofidentity,community,andmeaningfullife.Allreligions,forexample,havediscoveredthatnegative psychologicalstates, suchas pride,anger,hatred,lust, envy,ignorance,selfishness, andegotism,lead topersonaland socialconflict,injustice,andpain.Ontheotherhand,positivementalandemotionalattitudes,suchaslove,altruism, forgiveness,compassion,generosity,humility,equanimity,andwisdom,leadtoasenseofpersonalwell-beingandsocial harmony.Fromapsychologicalperspective,religionsareall-encompassingtherapeuticsystemsthatdealwithmajorlife events,transitions,andcrisesandrespondinahealing,oftenlife-savingwaytothetravailsofthesufferingsoulandthe impoverishedspirit. With the emergence and then dominance of scientific rationalism, however, the fields of religion and psychology diverged and entered into a relation of mutual suspicion. Beginning with the Enlightenment and its materialistic, secular,andrationalisticweltanschauung,thepreviouslygenerallyacceptedreligiousandspiritualdelineationofhuman naturewasseriouslychallenged.Intime,asplitoccurredbetweenstudiesofhumannaturebasedonseculardefinitions andtheage-oldreligiousknowledgeofthehumansoulandspirit.Thetwofieldsthatshouldhavebeenalliedandin creativedialogueinsteadbecameestrangedfromeachother,andoftenignoredorrejectedtheknowledgethateachcould havecontributedtotheenterpriseofunderstandinghumannature.Purelysecularnotionsofhumannatureemerged: humanbeingswereseenasrationalanimals;apersonwasbornatabularasa,neithergoodnorevil,withparentingand education forming the personality; human beings were a composite of their economic and social relations; human beings were initially motivated by instinctive, irrational, and unrealistic drives and desires; all human behavior, emotions,andmotivationsandthosemostsublimeculturalcreations,religiousbeliefsandexperiences,weretheresult of complexorganic, neurological, and biochemical interactions. The tradition inspired by Sigmund Freud tended to viewreligionasanillusion,aculturalvestigeofimmaturityandprojection.Consequently,thoseinthereligiouscamp cametoviewpsychologyasareductionistenterprisethatdeniedthesacredandtranscendentaspectsofreality. Whilesomecontinuetosubscribetosuchstereotypes,amoresophisticatedunderstandingofreligion–particularly asadvancedbythefieldofdepthpsychology–hasdonemuchtoovercomethem.Thesecularparadigmthathasruled thedomainofpsychologyforthepastcenturieswaschallengedearlyonbypioneerssuchasWilliamJames,C.G.Jung, RobertoAssagioli,ViktorFrankl,ErikErikson,andthehumanisticpsychologistsGordon Allport,ErichFromm,and AbrahamMaslow.Duringthe1970s,thesethinkerswerejoinedbythetranspersonalpsychologists,whohavesoughta synthesisbetweensecularpsychologyandthegreatspiritualtraditions.Whiletheyhaveacceptedthestagesofpersonal development described by various exponents of secular psychology, they have added the stages of transpersonal developmentevidencedintheworld’scontemplativeandmeditativetraditions.Becauseoftheculturalshiftrepresented by the above and the persistence of religious beliefs in the vast majority of populations worldwide, contemporary psychologistsarebeginningtorecognizethatapurelysecularapproachtothestudyandtreatmentofhumanbeingsis inadequate.Asciencededicatedtotheexplorationofthebasiccharacteristicsandstrivingsofhumanbeingsandtothe classificationofthelawsofhumanbehaviorneedstobeinclusiveandnotexclusiveofthereligiousdimension. The need to address religious and spiritual problems is now deemed not only legitimate, but also clinically and ethically imperative. The 1994 edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders published by the AmericanPsychiatricAssociation,forexample,containsanewclassification,‘‘ReligiousorSpiritualProblems.’’ ThisEncyclopediaofPsychologyandReligiongrowsoutofthedevelopingawarenessoftheneedtoreintegratethe sciencesofthemindwiththescienceofthespirit. Bybringing together thedisciplines ofpsychology andreligion, it viii Introduction unitesthetwoareasofstudyconcernedwiththebehaviorandmotivationsofhumanbeingsandprovidesacrucialnew resourceforthecollaborationandmutualilluminationofthesetwofields.Forthoseinthestudyofreligion,itoffers new toolsforunderstandingtheimages,structures, symbols, andrhythms thatconstitute thevocabularyofreligious experience. For those in the field of psychology it reveals deep patterns of meaning and practice that inform human cultureandthepersonalidentityofmillions. ThisEncyclopediaofPsychologyandReligionillustrates,eventotheskeptical,thevitalimportanceofreligioninour worldandtheseriousdepthsofitssymbolicuniverse.Forthosealreadyimmersedinreligiousstudies,itdemonstrates layersofmeaningthatareenriched–notreduced–bythetoolsofpsychologicalinvestigation. Wetrustthisencyclopediaprovidescomprehensivetimelyaccessibleinformationfromamulti-facetedperspective thatreflectstheintersectionandthegrowingsynthesisofpsychologyandreligion. DavidA.Leeming,KathrynMadden,andStantonMarlan Editors-in-Chief DavidA.Leeming Blanton-PealeInstitute 3West29thStreet NewYork,NY10001 USA KathrynMadden NationalInstituteforthePsychotherapies 250West57thStreet,Suite501 NewYork,NY10019 USA StantonMarlan PittsburghCenterforPsychotherapyandPsychoanalysis 4527WinthropStreet Pittsburgh,PA15213-3722 USA Managing Editor DavidA.Leeming Blanton-PealeInstitute 3West29thStreet NewYork,NY10001 USA Associate Managing Editor FeliceNoelleRodriguez Blanton-PealeInstitute 3West29thStreet NewYork,NY10001 USA