ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POLITICS The Left and The Right ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POLITICS The Left and The Right 2: The Right VOLUME GENERAL EDITOR Rodney P. Carlisle, Ph.D. RUTGERS UNIVERSITY Carlise Copyright Page(final).qxd 2/14/2005 7:40 PM Page 2 Copyright 2005 by Sage Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Volume 1 Cover Photo:President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 on July 2, 1964, as Martin Luther King, Jr. looks on. Credit: LBJ Library Photo by Cecil Stoughton. Volume 2 Cover Photo:President Gerald Ford (center, right) and former presidential candidate Ronald Reagan (center, left) show solidarity at the Republican National Convention, August 19, 1976. Credit: Courtesy Gerald R. Ford Library. For information: Sage Publications, Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: [email protected] Sage Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y1SP United Kingdom Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B-42, Panchsheel Enclave Post Box 4109 New Delhi 110 017 India Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of politics: The left and the right / Rodney P. Carlisle, general editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-4129-0409-9 (cloth) 1. Right and left (Political science)—Encyclopedias. 2. Political science—Encyclopedias. I. Carlisle, Rodney P. JA61.E54 2005 320′.03—dc22 2005002334 This book is printed on acid-free paper. 05 06 07 08 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 GOLSON BOOKS, LTD. STAFF: SAGE PUBLICATIONS STAFF: President and Editor: Geoff Golson Acquiring Editor: Rolf Janke Managing Editor: Laura Laurie Editorial Assistant: Sara Tauber Design Director: Kevin Hanek Production Editor: Denise Santoyo Copy Editor and Proofreader: Martha Whitt, Proofreader: Doris Hus Lori Kranz Production Artist: Michelle Lee Kenny Indexer: Gail Liss ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POLITICS 2 VOLUME CONTENTS The Right Articles A to Z 501 Resource Guide 953 Appendix: Glossary 957 Index 1021 ALSO SEE VOLUME 1: The Left The Right A Africa bers. Varying forms of ownership were introduced to avoid concentration of economic power and a progres- IN A CONTINENT where conservative empires like sive system of taxation introduced to ensure an equi- Germany, which originally held today’s Namibia and table distribution of wealth and income.” Tanzania (except for Zanzibar), Belgium, England, and Politically, however, Kenya sided clearly with the France, it is interesting to note how two of the most im- democracies against regional terrorism, which began portant African countries clung to conservative ideolo- after the Arab defeat in the Middle East war of 1967. gies after independence: Kenya and South Africa. Both As Gordon Thomas writes, it was the Israeli Mossad are effective case studies of how assuming power can that enlisted Kenya in the battle against the attempt by bring about extensive change in the tactics and ideology the Chinese communists to subvert Africa. The Chi- of a national independence movement. nese communists formed a direct threat to the moder- Although the Mau Mau of Kenya, led by Jomo ate Kenyan government, and the Mossad gave the Kenyatta, committed many atrocities during the strug- Kenyans vital information. It was in gratitude for this gle for independence, it was not motivated by any real that arap Moi let the Israelis use Nairobi, the capital of political ideology, like the communists who later fought Kenya, as a refueling stop in the epic Operation Thun- the Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique, or would derbolt in July 1976, the rescue of the Jewish hostages overthrow and kill Emperor Haile Selassie in Ethiopia. held by Arab terrorists in Idi Amin’s anarchic Uganda. Kenyatta’s struggle for independence was a purely prag- After its declaration as the Union of South Africa matic one, and did not embrace communism or any in 1961, the Boer government entered into a bloody other leftist ideology. Though constitutionally a one- struggle against the left-leaning African National Con- party state, Kenya conservatively planned its post-inde- gress (ANC), in which its BOSS intelligence service pendence future under Kenyatta and his successor, would become the most rightist and feared organization Daniel arap Moi. According to the Kenyan government, on the continent. Anti-terrorism brought South Africa “Kenya welcomed both private and government invest- and Israel into a natural alliance, fostered by Israel’s ment. Every farmer needed to be sure of his land rights, Prime Minister Golda Meir. Both the ANC and the land consolidation, and land registration for title deeds. Palestine Liberation Organization (Israel’s enemy) were The government wanted to ensure that property was ideological kinsmen, and a further diplomatic de- used in the mutual interest of the society and its mem- marche would occur between South Africa’s Prime 501 502 Africa Minister P.W. Botha and Ezer Weizman that, according strategic heart of Africa. Lumumba was captured in a to Thomas, amounted to a mutual defense pact. coup led by Colonel Sese Seko Mobutu. Under circum- In September 1981, South Africa’s Minister of De- stances still unclear, Lumumba was assassinated in Eliz- fense Magnus Malan asserted that “the onslaught here abethville in January 1961. Although CIA complicity is communist-inspired, communist-planned, and com- has been alleged by leftists, no evidence has come to munist-supported.” Israel gave South Africa much aid light except through the prism of communist propa- in return for uranium destined for the Israeli nuclear re- ganda. Lumumba’s death initiated a civil war that can search facility at Dimona in the Negev Desert. However, stand as a microcosm of Africa’s experience in the once the ANC assumed power in 1994 under Nelson 1960s. Mandela, its political coloration significantly changed. As a result of Lumumba’s Marxist flirtation, Executive Outcomes (EO) had been formed as a Moishe Tshombe and the diamond-rich Katanga highly sophisticated rightist military organization by province seceded from the Congo. Backed by the Bel- Eeben Barlow in 1989. This Outcomes group was re- gian Union Miniere company, Tshombe was able to cruited from former members of the South African De- hire white mercenaries, whose fighting skills were supe- fense Force, or army, which was committed to battling rior to the Congolese Army, really an armed police the ANC. When Mandela became president in 1994, he force. Forced into exile, Tshombe returned to serve as did not disband Executive Outcomes. Instead, he used prime minister in July 1964. General Mobutu staged an- its soldiers to help bring stability to West Africa. With other military coup in November 1965. In July 1967 the help of EO, the Angolan government was able to de- Tshombe was kidnapped and taken to Algeria, and died feat Jonas Savimbi’s UNITA force in 1993. Only two in prison of a heart attack two years later. Mobutu years later, EO seriously mauled the terrorist forces of brought stability to a country ravaged by war and, ex- Foday Sankoh in Sierra Leone. However, due to diplo- cept for an insurrection in 1978, governed for nearly matic confusion, Sankoh would still remain in power three decades. for years, to die in United Nations custody in 2003 after At the other end of the continent, another struggle his fall from power in 2000. became aggravated in South Africa. While it was the Mandela, rather than attempt to hold on to power Union of South Africa, the dominant Afrikaans, or as with many other African heads of state, voluntarily Boer, population, descended from 17th-century Dutch resigned from office in 1999 to be replaced as South colonists, began to press for strict segregation of the African president by Thabo Mbeki. When widespread races. The racism of the Boers had been the factor that publicity focused on EO, it disbanded in 1999, but in- set into motion one of the world’s great independence formed speculation holds that it has continued its mis- movements. When Mahatma Gandhi lived in South sion under similar corporate entities like the Saracen or Africa during the early years of the 20th century, the ef- Lifeguard firms, and still is attempting to restore stabil- fect so traumatized him that he went home to free his ity to post-independence Africa. India from the British rule that had tolerated such racism in South Africa. RIGHTIST REACTIONS As a result of apartheid segregation, the ANC was formed, with a strong communist coloration. Thus, the Much of the history of the right in Africa has to do intense racist feeling of the Boers had brought into with rightist reactions to leftist movements, whether le- being a destabilizing communist movement in South gitimate (but Soviet-backed) independence movements Africa. The extreme right-wing National Party won in or terrorist organizations. Moreover, during the 1960s, 1948, making apartheid the official policy of the coun- the newly emerging African states became increasingly try. The Union of South Africa became the Republic of embroiled in the Cold War between the United States South Africa on May 31, 1961, and left the British and the Soviet Union. This was no more evident than in Commonwealth in the face of condemnation of its the Belgian Congo, which emerged as a free nation in apartheid policies. For over 30 years, the struggle be- June 1960. In October 1958, Patrice Lumumba had tween the ANC and the apartheid regime would domi- founded the Congolese National Movement (MNC), nate South African life. The conflict was resolved and became its first prime minister in June 1960. How- relatively peacefully when apartheid was finally abol- ever, Lumumba began a flirtation with the Soviet ished when the ANC came to power in 1994. Union, which threatened to bring the influence of the South Africa was not alone in its rightist apartheid Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev directly into the regimes. When Tanzania was formed in the 1960s, Africa 503 Southern Rhodesia became the state of Rhodesia under particular, opposed Amin’s regime, and he offered hos- Ian Smith, who followed the precedent of South Africa pitality to the exiled Obote, facilitating his attempts to in creating a white-dominated African country. The His- raise a force and return to power.” The Amin regime, a tory of Rhodesiarecorded that Britain pushed for a con- return to the days when Ugandan (then Bugandan) stitutional reform of its colony that would grant the kings persecuted Christians in the 19th century, would African population majority political representation. lead a reign of terror with his State Research Bureau Ian Smith and the Southern Rhodesian parliament were (SRB) in which some 50,000 to 120,000 of his citizens unwilling to accept this and in 1965 unilaterally de- may have perished. At the same time, he allied himself clared independence, the state now being called Rhode- with the Palestinians, who had been fighting a war of sia. Britain opposed this measure and negotiations terror against Israel since it defeated the Arab states in continued; the Smith government drew support from the Middle East war of June 1967. In this, he became al- South Africa’s apartheid regime. lied with Colonel Muammar Quaddafi, who had seized The negotiations with Britain failed in 1969, and the power in Libya in 1962. British Commonwealth decided to boycott Rhodesia; On June 24, 1976, the Palestinian and German ter- the country’s athletes could not participate in Olympic rorists hijacked an Air France jet to Entebbe airport in Games, and many nations refused to trade with Rhode- Uganda, with Israeli citizens aboard, apparently with sia. In 1970, Rhodesia proclaimed the republic. The the help of Amin. Negotiations were begun, including ZANU (Shona, led by Robert Mugabe) and ZAPU talks directly with Amin by Israeli Colonel Baruch Bar- (Ndebele, led by Joshua Nkomo) organizations began to Lev, who once had been a military adviser in Uganda. hurt Rhodesia by guerrilla raids from bases in Mozam- When the lives of the hostages seemed threatened, Is- bique (which became independent in 1975, under a so- rael launched Operation Thunderbolt, a daring rescue cialist regime). The situation became more and more mission to save them. The success of the historic mis- difficult. In 1980, the Rhodesian administration agreed sion was helped by Kenya. Eventually, Amin’s rule be- to general elections with African participation; Robert came a barbaric embarrassment for the neighboring Mugabe’s Zanu emerged victorious. The country was African countries, especially Tanzania. When Amin renamed Zimbabwe. used Libyan troops to attack Tanzania, Nyerere Yet the 1960s also saw the rupture of the most launched a counterstrike in April 1979 which drove promising country in West Africa, Nigeria. In May Amin out of Uganda. Amin died in exile in Saudi Ara- 1967, the secessionist Republic of Biafra was pro- bia in August 2003. claimed, largely to protect the Igbos, many of whom The Cold War, never far from the surface in Africa, were Christians. By the time the war ended, according became especially pointed in Somalia during the 1980s. to the U.S. Library of Congress, “Estimates in the for- Mohammed Siad Barre, dictator of Somalia, had mer Eastern Region of the number of dead from hostil- launched in 1977 an invasion of the Ogaden Province in ities, disease, and starvation during the 30-month civil neighboring Ethiopia. The invasion would exacerbate a war are estimated at between 1 million and 3 million. growing famine that plunged Somalia and Ethiopia into The end of the fighting found more than 3 million Igbo turmoil. Both the Soviet Union and the United States refugees crowded into a 2,500-square-kilometer enclave. desired the Horn of Africa at Somalia because the na- Prospects for the survival of many of them and for the tion that controlled the narrow Red Sea there would future of the region were dim.” control the entire maritime traffic through the Red Sea While the Cold War served to be the dominant fac- to the Arabian Sea and beyond. tor affecting African nationalism in the 1970s, the con- Barre remained in power by carefully balancing So- tinuing struggle in the Middle East reached out as well. viet and American aid, but fell in a coup in 1991. The In 1971, President Milton Obote of Uganda was top- coup led to an internecine war among the powerful pled by Idi Amin Dada, who had begun his military ca- clans of Somalis, in which Mohammed Aidid eventu- reer in the colonial British King’s African Rifles (KAR), ally emerged as the paramount warlord. which had fought in the Mau Mau Emergency in Kenya. As the U.S. Library of Congress states, “presidents DEMOCRACY OVER MARXISM Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Kenneth Kaunda of Zam- bia, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, and the Organization of A major turn to democracy and the end of Marxist in- African Unity (OAU) initially refused to accept the le- fluence in East Africa came in October 1992 when gitimacy of the new military government. Nyerere, in Mozambique celebrated its first democratic elections in 504 Agrarianism its history. With political stability came the hope of a and virtuous. Only the yeoman farmer truly has a stake free market economy to stimulate the hope of capitalist in the land to defend it against attack in times of danger. investment not only in Mozambique, but in the entire Honest and incorruptible, independent farmers enjoy East African region. true freedom according to the agrarian view. As the millennium dawned in 2000, it brought Agrarianism also harkens back to a more stable, set- mixed hope for stability in the African continent. Trag- tled social order of reciprocal social bonds that existed ically, the Christian and Muslim strife in Nigeria only before the rise of cities and machines. Sir Roger de Cov- grew worse. Yet, in the area of the worst slaughter, erley, a character from The Spectatorby Joseph Addison Rwanda in the 1990s, there had already been signs of and Richard Steele, exemplifies the best kind of pater- the rule of law. In 1996, the United Nations Interna- nalistic and rural values envisioned by many agrarians. tional Criminal Tribunal in Rwanda began hearing from James Everett Kibler’s study of a South Carolina plan- conspirators in the massive bloodshed. At the same tation, Our Fathers’ Fields, offers a historical portrait of time, intervention by the British Paratroop Regiment fi- a similar society and its devastating encounter with nally brought peace to Sierra Leone. Edward Harris re- modernity in the Civil War. ported in The Philadelphia Inquirer that “prosecutors Thomas Jefferson is the foremost American expo- opened the first UN-backed war-crimes trial yesterday nent of agrarian ideals. Although Jefferson himself re- in Sierra Leone’s vicious civil war, calling for a just ac- mained mired in debt for much of his adult life and counting for the agony of 10 long years.” relied upon slave labor, he wrote eloquently of the life of the yeoman farmer. In “Query XIX” of Notes on the SSEEEE AALLSSOO State of Virginia, Jefferson wrote: “Those who labor in Volume 1 Left: Africa; Egypt; Socialism; Uganda. the earth are the chosen people of God ... whose breasts Volume 2 Right:Capitalism; Globalization. he has made his peculiar deposit for substantial and genuine virtue. Corruption of morals in the mass of BBIIBBLLIIOOGGRRAAPPHHYY cultivators is a phenomenon of which no age nor nation “The Mau-Mau and the End of the Colony,” www.kenyal- has furnished an example ... Dependence begets sub- ogy.com (July 2004). Patrice Lumumba, www.sci.pfu.edu.ru servience and venality, suffocates the germ of virtue, (July 2004); Christopher Adams, “Sands of Time See Libya and prepares fit tools for the designs of ambition.” Join War on Terror,” Financial Times (March 26, 2004); Many of Jefferson’s political ideas grew from his agrar- Joseph S. Nye, Peace in Parts(Rowman and Littlefield, 1987); ian views: in particular, his opposition to the commer- Library of Congress Country Studies, www.lcweb2.loc.gov cial and political views of Alexander Hamilton. (July 2004); Obituary Foday Sankoh, July 31, 2003, Hamiltonian attitudes would triumph in America with www.guardian.co (July 2004); “Mobutu Sese Seko Dies at the defeat of the Confederacy in the Civil War. 66,” Associated Press (September 1997); Edward Harris, In the 1920s and 1930s, a group of southern writers “War-Crimes Trial in Sierra Leone Starts with Surprise,” and academics attempted to revive the agrarian ideal. Philadelphia Inquirer(June 4, 2004); Bill Berkeley, The Graves Allen Tate, Andrew Nelson Lytle, Donald Davidson, Are Not Yet Full(Perseus, 2001); Karl Maier, Into the House of and nine other southerners contributed to I’ll Take My the Ancestors: Inside the New Africa (Wiley, 1998); Jimmy Stand, which they termed an agrarian manifesto. They Carter, Keeping the Faith(Bantam, 1982). constructed an elegant appeal to America to return to a traditional economic and moral order, and wrote with a JOHNF. MURPHY, JR. deeply felt love of history and tradition. Southern AMERICANMILITARYUNIVERSITY agrarians also harkened back to an idealized version of antebellum southern life. I’ll Take My Standcondemned both industrialism and socialism as soulless and equally destructive of freedom and Western civilization. In par- ticular,I’ll Take My Stand attacked the idea of progress, Agrarianism especially the American idea of progress not toward a goal, but for its own sake. The kind of conservatism es- AGRARIANISM IS THEbelief that true freedom be- poused by southern agrarians differs sharply from the longs to the independent farmer who owns his or her conservatism of the Republican Party with its closeness own land. Only the yeoman farmer who can provide his to big business. Seven years after the publication of I’ll own food from his own land remains truly independent Take My Stand, some of the same authors reunited for Agrarianism 505 Agrarian ideals harkened back to the days unspoiled by progress and were especially espoused by Thomas Jefferson. Southern agrarians in the United States conservatively reacted against modernity’s social ills, such as poverty and alienation. Who Owns America?, a volume of essays that con- shares with environmentalism a reverence for land, demned both communism and capitalism as threats to agrarianism differs from that movement in its reverence freedom. At its core, southern agrarianism was a reac- for a traditional political and moral order, and in its tion against modernity and all of modernity’s attendant conservatism. Nowhere has it appeared as a practical societal ills. political program with genuine support, nor is it likely In the last decade of the 20th century, Victor Davis to in a nation so comfortably wedded to machines and Hanson emerged as a leading defender of agrarian val- big government. Yet the agrarian life can still be appre- ues. Hanson, a classics professor in California and a ciated through books, preferably read out-of-doors with successful popular military historian, became a leading a hound at one’s side, and lived by those untroubled by agrarian writer. Unlike the southern agrarians, Hanson fighting for a lost cause. wrote from the perspective of one born and reared on a farm, who witnessed the decline of small farming in SSEEEE AALLSSOO America. Hanson also differs from the southern agrari- Volume 1 Left: Alienation; Communism; American Civil ans in his distaste for the Confederate States of Amer- War; Jefferson, Thomas. ica, an attitude in full flower in some of his writings on Volume 2 Right:American Civil War; Autarchy. military history. By the beginning of the 21st century, aspects of BBIIBBLLIIOOGGRRAAPPHHYY agrarianism appealed to elements on both the right and Herbert Agar and Allen Tate, eds., Who Owns America? A left of the American political spectrum. Although it New Declaration of Independence(Houghton Mifflin, 1936); 506 Ali,NobleDrew Eugene D. Genovese, The Southern Tradition: The Achievement Ali taught his followers that African Americans and Limitations of an American Conservatism(Harvard Univer- were Asiatics, and specifically Moors who came from sity Press, 1994); Victor Davis Hanson, Fields Without Morocco. According to Drew Ali, African Americans Dreams: Defending the Agrarian Idea(The Free Press, 1996); were “descendents of the ancient Moabites who inhab- Victor Davis Hanson, The Land Was Everything: Letters From ited the northwestern and southwestern shores of an American Farmer(The Free Press, 2000); Thomas Jefferson, Africa.” He believed that Islam was for people of Writings, Merrill D. Peterson, ed. (Literary Classics of the African descent and Christianity was only for Euro- United States, Inc., 1984); James Kibler and James Everett, peans. He believed peace on earth would only come Our Father’s Fields: A Southern Story(Pelican Publishing Com- when each racial group had its own religion. Ali pub- pany, 2003); Mark G. Malvasi, The Unregenerate South: The lished his philosophy in a 64-page Holy Koran. Agrarian Thought of John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, and Don- The Moorish Science Temple Holy Koran com- ald Davidson(Louisiana State University Press, 1997); Paul V. bined Ali’s teachings with those of the Christian Bible, Murphy, The Rebuke of History: The Southern Agrarians and Garvey’s African nationalism, and the Islamic Quran. American Conservative Thought(University ofNorth Carolina He taught that North America was an extension of the Press, 2001); William A. Percy, Lanterns on the Levee: Recollec- African continent because Africans were enslaved and tions of a Planter’s Son(Alfred A. Knopf, 1941); Ben Robert- brought to North America. African Americans, he said, son, Red Hills and Cotton: An Upcountry Memory (University must refuse to be called Negro, black, colored, or of South Carolina Press, 1960); Twelve Southerners, I’ll Take Ethiopian. Instead, they must call themselves Asiatics, My Stand: The South and the Agrarian Tradition (Harper, Moors, or Moorish Americans. 1930). Members of the Moorish Science Temple pray fac- ing the east three times a day, at sunset, noon, and sun- MITCHELLMCNAYLOR rise. Members take the name El or Bey as their “free OURLADYOFTHELAKECOLLEGE national name,” much the same way that members of the Nation of Islam replace their Christian name with “X.” They are also given a membership card, containing their name, which proclaims their honor for “the divine prophets, Jesus, Mohammad, Buddha, and Confucius,” Ali, Noble Drew (1886–1929) and which concludes with the declaration: “I am a citi- zen of the USA.” Male members wear a red fez with a NOBLE DREW ALI(born Timothy Drew), founder of black tassel and are permitted to dress casually when the Moorish American Science Temple, was born in not attending official functions. Female members wear North Carolina. During the first decade of the 20th long skirts or pants and a turban. The fez and turban century, Ali migrated to Newark, New Jersey, where he are symbolic protection for the knowledge embodied preached the principles of a new black nationalism in by the membership. Marriages are monogamous and di- homes and on the streets. Ali, a contemporary of Mar- vorce is rarely permitted. cus Garvey, did not call for emigration to Africa by In addition to organizing temples throughout the black Americans. Instead, he urged African Americans northern and eastern United States, most prominently to become knowledgeable about their African heritage in Chicago, Illinois, and Detroit, Michigan, Ali estab- and to become Muslims to overcome racial oppression lished collectively owned small businesses. Some of in the early 20th-century United States. Ali’s subordinates exploited these businesses for finan- According to the teachings of the Moorish Science cial gain. When Ali attempted to intervene, a power Temple, Drew, before changing his name, embarked on struggle ensued. In 1929, a splinter faction leader, Sheik a pilgrimage to North Africa where he was given a mis- Claude Greene, was shot to death in Chicago. Although sion by the King of Morocco to bring the teaching of Ali was not in Chicago at the time of the shooting, he Islam to African Americans. In order to prove he was was arrested and charged with Greene’s murder. Ali was the prophet of Allah, Drew had to pass a test. Drew was later released on bond. A few weeks after his release in dropped inside the pyramids of Egypt and had to find 1929, Ali died of suspicious causes. Many believe he ei- his way out, which he did successfully, proving that he ther died of injuries inflicted by the police or he was was indeed the prophet of Allah, or God. In 1913, murdered by followers of Greene. Drew organized the Moorish Science Temple in After Ali’s death, John Givens El in Chicago, Illi- Newark as the prophet of Allah, Nobel Drew Ali. nois, and Master Fard Muhammad in Detroit, Michi-