Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology Caroline S. Clauss-Ehlers (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology CarolineS.Clauss-Ehlers,Ph.D. AssociateProfessorofCounselingPsychology DepartmentofEducationalPsychology Rutgers,TheStateUniversityofNewJersey U.S.A. ISBN-13:978-0-387-71798-2 Thispublicationisavailablealsoas: Electronicpublicationunder978-0-387-71799-9and PrintandelectronicbundleunderISBN978-0-387-71800-2 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2008925838 Allrightsarereserved.Thisworkmaynotbetranslatedorcopiedinwholeorinpartwithoutthewrittenpermissionofthepublisher (SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC,233SpringStreet,NewYork,NY10013,USA),exceptforbriefexcerptsinconnectionwith reviewsorscholarlyanalysis.Useinconnectionwithanyformofinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaption,computer software,orsimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdevelopedisforbidden. Theuseinthispublicationoftradenames,trademarks,servicemarks,andsimilarterms,eveniftheyarenotidentifiedassuch,isnot tobetakenasanexpressionofopinionastowhetherornottheyaresubjecttoproprietaryrights. SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia springer.com #SpringerScience+BusinessMediaLLC2010 Productliability:Thepublisherscannotguaranteetheaccuracyofanyinformationabouttheapplicationofoperative techniquesandmedicationscontainedinthisbook.Ineveryindividualcasetheusermustchecksuchinformationbyconsulting therelevantliterature. springer.com Printedonacid-freepaper SPIN:11347354 2109–54321 ToJulian,Isabel,andSabrina—whoseloveandsupport throughoutthisworkspeaksvolumes! Preface ItiswithgreatanticipationthatIhopeyou,thereader,willlearnfromthepagesthatfollow.Thefieldofschool psychology is becoming increasingly prominent. School-based mental health centers provide counseling and servicestoyouthinoneoftheirprimarynaturalenvironments—theschool.Theygivechildrenandfamiliesaccess to counseling, assessment, intervention, resources, and referrals, among a host of other services. Access is enhanced when interventions are delivered where children live their lives and experience their world. This isunlikegoingtoanoutsideenvironmentforsupportsuchasaprivatepracticesetting.Thisin-lifeinterventionis further enhanced when it is provided in a way that reflects the youth’s experience. The Encyclopedia of Cross- Cultural School Psychology puts the practice of school psychology in a cross-cultural context. It explores how school psychology is culturally and linguistically relevant for students who represent various dimensions of diversity.When selecting topicstowrite,contributors wereinstructedtoconsiderhoweach subject areaplayed outinacross-culturalcontext.Hence,theconceptofacademicachievementconsiderstheexperiencesofdiverse racial/ethnic groups of youth. The term ‘cultural resilience’ explores the cultural implications of overcoming adversity. The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology has several goals. First, it seeks to respond to the increasingly diverse nature of schools—this considers what is happening nationally as well as implications for globaloutreach.Second,thevolumeorganizesacommunityofsciencethatprovidescurrentinformationabouta far-reaching range of topics that are inextricably related. Individual entries are broadly categorized as follows: administrative issues; children at different stages of development; alternative school considerations; assessment withinacross-culturalcontext;communitypartnerships;counselingconcepts;culturalcompetence;curriculum issues; ethnic identity; gender identity; health insurance and healthcare access; home–school connections; initiatives and innovations in the discipline; language and communication; religious schools; public policy; professional and community organizations; school climate; cross-cultural issues in special education; and a hostofadditionalcriticalissuessuchasterrorism,teacherburnout,andculturallycompetentteachingstrategies. The third goal is to offer an easily accessible major reference work. School personnel are busy. Countless challenges arise on a daily basis. Consider the incident where a child makes a racist comment to his classmate. In the moment, the teacher maybe understandably nervous—she wondershow to respond and what action to take.Thisvolumeisgearedtogiveteachersinthissituationanavenuewheretheycanquicklyaccesstopicslike racismandbullyingsoastorespondfromabaseofnewknowledge. The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology is formatted and organized in a purposeful way. Five foundationaltopicsprovideanoverallgroundingforthemorethan400entriesthatfollow.Thecontentofthese fivechaptersincludesanoverviewofthehistoryofcross-culturalschoolpsychologyintheUnitedStates,areview of cross-cultural competencies, discussion about disparities in school services, consideration of multicultural assessmenttools,andfuturedirectionsinthefieldofschoolpsychology.Thesefoundationalareasarefollowedby an A to Z listing of the topics themselves. Formatting within each topic is designed to maximize access to information.Entriesrangeinlengthfromsmall(approximately600words),tomedium(1,500words),andlarge (4,500words).Subheadingshighlightspecificareasofinterestassociatedwitheachtopic.(Ofcourse,forsmaller entries,theremaynotbeanysubheadings.)Cross-referencesareprovidedattheendofeachentry.Thesehelpthe reader to seek out additional topics that relate to the major reference heading. For many topics, additional sectionspresentsuggestedreadingandsuggestedresourceslikewebsites. A text such as this is not without limitations. Because of the growth and increasing development of cross- culturalschoolpsychology,certainlimitationsareboundtodevelop.Thechangingnatureofinformationisacase in point. Even within the course of this project, for instance, new scientifically based evidence and treatments emerged. The fact that this is an issue is exciting—it means that sufficient work is being done that warrants consideration about new developments and innovations in the field. This is good news. A second limitation is moreconcreteandconcernsthetopicsthemselves.Itwaseasytoidentifycontributorsfortopicswithsubstantial researchandappliedknowledgetobackthemup.Thiswasnotnecessarilythecaseforsomeofthemoreesoteric, viii Preface lessresearchedtopics.Indeed,someofthesetopicswereultimatelynotincludedbecausepotentialcontributors could not be identified. It is hoped that as the field progresses, scholarship will occur not only for those more recentinnovations,butalsoacrossanevengreaterrangeofcontentthanthatpresentedhere.Fortopicsthatare notincluded,Iinvitereaderstoconsiderhowresearchcanmovesuchareasforwardforfuturepublication.Iam open to this conversation. Readers, for instance, are welcome to send me emails or letters sharing their recommendationsaboutadditionaltopicstobeincludedinpossiblefutureeditionsofthisvolume. Iwouldliketotakeamomenttoacknowledgethemanyindividualswhocontributedtothiswork.Anoverall acknowledgement goes out totheauthors. Ithasbeenagreatpleasuretoworkwith them and learn fromtheir manyperspectives.Iamalsoquiteproudofthefactthat,justasthisencyclopediafocusesondiversity,sotooare the contributors whose words fill the pages that follow. Contributor diversity includes demographic variables, country of origin, area of study, and even professional position. With regard to the latter, for instance, it was wonderfulthatsomeofthecontributorsactuallydevelopedthemeasurestheywroteabout,whereasotherswere undergraduateandgraduatestudentsorganizingtheirfirstpublication.Justasthediversityoftopicsmakesthis workinteresting,sotoodoesthevarietyofauthorswhopresenttheirworkfromtheirparticularworldviews. Finally,therearespecificentitiesandindividualswhodeservemention.Igiveaheartfeltthankstoawonderful Advisory Board. The Board provided timely feedback and access to their expertise throughout the process of compiling this project. Many thanks also goes to Dr. Thomas H. Bornemann, Director of the Mental Health ProgramatTheCarterCenter,authoroftheforewordforthistext,whosharesgreatknowledgeandcompassion about this area. The collaboration at Springer has been truly gratifying. Judy Jones, the Senior Editor who first approachedmeaboutthisproject,hasalwaysbeensupportiveandhelpful.SharonPanulla,ExecutiveEditor,has beenanongoingsourceofsteadfastnessthroughoutprojectdevelopment.EditorialAssistantsHeikeRichiniand Ulrike Eggert-Neben have amazed me with their accuracy and precision where the written word is concerned. SusanneFriedrichsenhasbeenathoughtfulReferenceDevelopmentEditorandChrisPurdonhassharedhistalent for detail and meticulousness as Freelance Copy-Editor. Antonia Hernandez, my former student and now a professional in her own right, has been a loyal colleague and contributor. Kristina Metz never ceased to amaze withherclarity,andMatthewJ.Mayerprovidedtimelyfeedbackandinsight. Of course, no acknowledgment is complete without the mention of those who make a family. My husband Julian has been a consistent support with his encouraging, gentle way that says anything is possible. Isabel, my oldestdaughter,waspresentduringinitialdiscussionsaboutthisprojectattheAmericanPsychologicalAssocia- tionconferenceinHonolulu,Hawaii.Shehasthrivedthroughout,evenpullingtheoccasionalchairintomyhome officetositdownanddoherresearch.AndSabrina,whoactuallycameintoexistenceduringthemiddlepartof thiswork,isnowfourandproudlysaystheword‘‘research.’’Allthreehaveprovidedgreatjoyduringthiswriting. To think about children in general, and then to think about mychildren, my nieces, nephews, and my friends’ children,istobeinspired.Itisacalltoaction.Acalltoconsiderseriouslyhowwhatweknowasa‘‘school’’canbe aplaceofegalitarianism,socialjustice,aloveoflearning,ongoingcuriosity,andoveralljoyforchildrenandthose chargedwithhelpingthemlearn.Whataworldthiswouldbe. CarolineS.Clauss-Ehlers Foreword AstheU.S.populationincreaseseachyear,itcontinuestodiversify.Inthepast35years,thepercentageofforeign- born people living in the U.S.—both those who are naturalized and those who are not citizens—has increased from nearly 5% in 1970 to over 19% in 2005.1 This racial, ethnic, and cultural movement is reflected in many aspects of society, including the educational system, and is bringing with it cultural, attitudinal, and linguistic variance. To best address the depth of this diversity, school systems need to change the ways that students of various racial, ethnic, and cultural groups are engaged in the classrooms, and to better recognize and serve the needsofthesestudentsandfamilies. It is imperative that educators receive training around the cultural and ethnic diversity in mental health services,andthenecessityofmakingthoseserviceslinguisticallyandculturallyappropriate.Schoolpsychologists, guidancecounselors,teachers,andadministratorswillcounsel,teach,andservechildrenmoreeffectivelyifthey acknowledgethevarietyofwaysinwhichstudentsdisplaymentalhealthproblemsandthereasonswhytheymay notreceivenecessaryservicesoutsidetheschoolsystem.AstheEncyclopediaofCross-CulturalSchoolPsychology indicates, the development and implementation of cross-cultural school psychology is essential in illuminating thesignificantchallengesposedbyincreasingpopulationdiversity.Furthermore,cross-culturalschoolpsychology facilitates the adaptation of instructional environments, the availability of critical resources, and the extent to whichteachersandparentsremaininformedabouttheirchildren. In assessing potential barriers to mental health services, it is important to acknowledge that language is directly and intimately linked with an individual’s sense of identity, social confidence, and feelings of security.2 Although services may be available, insensitivity to linguistic differences may preclude access to mental health servicesandleadtoerroneousevaluationsofastudent’sacademiccapability.Forinstance,English-as-a-Second- Language(ESL)studentsaresometimesclassifiedaslearningdisabledafter takingstandardizedtestsinEnglish, rather than in their native languages.3 Students in U.S. schools today speak more than 400 different languages. Most standardized tests are given only in English, and as a result, evaluation of individual knowledge and competence may inaccurately reflect cultural and ethnic differences. Unreliable assessments of strengths and weaknessescanunnecessarilyleavestudentsbehind. Aside from possible language barriers to services, recognition of culturally variant attitudes about mental healthandtheseekingofservicesisessential.TheNationalInstituteofMentalHealth(NIMH)hasindicatedthat prevalence rates of mental disorders are higher among U.S.-born children of immigrants than among their parents.4Onepossibilityforthistrendmayunderscorecross-culturalattitudinaldifferencesintheacceptanceand expressionofmentalillnesses.Therearesimilarities inmentalhealthproblemsacrosscultures,withsubstantial differencesintheculturalcontextoftheseproblems.5Inmy35-yearcareerinpublichealth,myworkdeveloping, planning,andimplementingmentalhealthprogramsforrefugeesandotherpopulationshasshownmostclearly these cultural commonalities and differences in the acceptance of mental health problems and programs for treatmentandrecovery. Individualsandorganizationscommittedtoworkingwithschoolchildrenofdifferentculturesandethnicities shouldbeeducatedonthecontextualissuesofmentalhealthandthepotentialforlanguagebarriers.Tobemost effective in their jobs, school psychologists, counselors, teachers, and administrators should then transfer this knowledgeintotheformationofappropriateacculturationpoliciesandservicesforaddressingthesedifferences. Withestimatesfortheyear2040suggestingthatnooneethnicorracialgroupwillcomposeamajorityoftheU.S. 1U.S.CensusBureauhttp://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event¼&geo_i;HistoricalStatisticsoftheUnitedStatesMillennial EditionOnline. 2Holtzman,W.H.,&Bornemann,T.H.(Eds.).(1990).Mentalhealthofimmigrantsandrefugees.Austin:HoggFoundationforMentalHealth. 3Rogers,M.R.,&Lopez,E.C.(2002).Identifyingcriticalcross-culturalschoolpsychologycompetencies.JournalofSchoolPsychology,40(2), 115–141.http://www.nasponline.org/resources/culturalcompetence/cultcompmhservices.pdf 4http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/immigrant_mentalhealth.cfm 5TheWorldHealthReport,2001. x Foreword school-age population,6 adapting to the increasingly heterogeneous population is no longer an option; it is a necessity. The focus of the Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology is to demonstrate howconcepts in school psychology have a cross-cultural application. It is particularly relevant to school psychologists, clinical child psychologists, developmental psychologists, guidance counselors, social workers, administrators, teachers, and other allied professionals. The content is divided into two principal sections: ‘‘Foundation Topics in Cross- Cultural School Psychology’’ and ‘‘Topics in Cross-Cultural School Psychology.’’ The former is further divided intofivesubsections,anditprovidesavaluablehistoricalcontextfromwhichtounderstandthe‘‘TopicsinCross- Cultural Psychology.’’ Each entry includes cross-references and suggested reading and online resources where appropriate. Thecontentisdesignedtoprovidereaderswiththenecessarydemographicandstatisticalbackgroundfrom which to gauge the need for cross-cultural psychology in U.S. schools. Additionally, several entries focus on specificareasofculturalandethnicvariance,givingin-depthandsubstantiveinformationondiversegroupsin theU.S.population,informationthatreadersshouldkeepinmindintheirdailyinteractionswithandtreatment ofculturallydiversestudents.Forexample,becauselanguagebarriersmaypresentproblemsinassessingstudents’ capabilities,thereisasectiondevotedsolelytolanguageandcommunication.Itincludescontenttoaddressthe languageneedsinmulticulturalclassrooms,theintricaciesofESLinstruction,culturallycompetentassessments of English language learners, transitional versus maintenance approaches to language, context communication, and other topics. These data are complemented by information on the assessment of culturally diverse groups, multiculturalassessmentinstruments,communitypartnershipsandorganizationsfordiverseyouth,thespecifics ofcounselingchildrenwithmentalandbehavioralhealthproblems,andinitiativestoincorporatecross-cultural awareness. TheEncyclopediaofCross-CulturalSchoolPsychologyisanexcellentandessentialresourcewithwhichtoguide educators,counselors,andothers.Itisthefirstcomprehensiveguidetocross-culturaleffortsinschools,andone that identifies the formation of cross-cultural school psychology as essential in elucidating the significant challenges posed by increasing population diversity. Furthermore, it highlights issues applicable to children in pre-kindergarten through grade 12, providing a lifespan approach that addresses cultural variance. With noted increases in population diversity, the need forculturally relevant materials on mental health servicesin schools willonlycontinuetoincreaseinthecomingyears.Theintroductionofthisencyclopediaisthereforeverytimely, andshouldproveindispensableinusheringU.S.schoolsintoaneweraofcross-culturalcompetency.Withthisin mind,allowittoremainonyourdeskwithitspagesopen,foronlythosewhoengageintheknowledgethatitso adeptlycompilesandaccessiblyorganizeswilluseittoitsfullestpotential. ThomasH.Bornemann,Ed.D.MSW AssistantSurgeonGeneral(retired) Director,TheCarterCenterMentalHealthProgram Atlanta,GA U.S.A. 6NationalAssociationofSchoolBoardsofEducation,2002,ascitedinWilliams,B.B.(2006).Culturallycompetentmentalhealthservicesinthe schools:Tipsforteachers.NationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologists.http://www.nasponline.org/resources/culturalcompetence/ cultcompmhservices.pdf Table of Contents Part I Foundation Issues in Cross-Cultural School Psychology .................. 1 TheHistoryofCross-CulturalSchoolPsychologyintheUnitedStates ........................... 3 WildaLaija-Rodriguez.AlbertoRestori Cross-CulturalSchoolPsychology:AnOverviewandExamplesofMulticultural TreatmentandAssessmentModalities .............................................................. 21 GiuseppeCostantino.CarmenInoaVazquez.MelaniePerez EnhancingCulturalCompetenceinSchoolsandSchoolMentalHealthPrograms ............ 39 CarolineSClauss-Ehlers.MarkDWeist.WHenryGregory.RobertHull RacialDisparitiesinSchoolServices ................................................................. 45 CharlesRRidley.MKaregaRausch.RussellJSkiba LookingintotheFuture:NewDirectionsinCross-CulturalSchoolPsychology ................ 55 BethKleinman-Fleischer Part II Topics in Cross-Cultural School Psychology ............................... 63 AdministrativeIssues RuralSchools Accountability SchoolBuses Accreditation SchoolRolesinMentalHealth Attendance SchoolStandards BlockScheduling School,SizeOf BookBanning School-BasedPrevention CenterforSchoolMentalHealth(CSMH) StudentDropout CenterforSchool-BasedMentalHealthPrograms StudentMobility (CSBMHP) SuburbanSchools CenterfortheAdvancementofMentalHealth Truancy PracticesinSchools Uniforms ClassSize UrbanSchools CommunitySchools Data,Using(Accountability) AgeGroups Demographics Adolescence EarlyIntervention AdolescentParents Education Childhood EducationFunding Daycare GradeConfigurations DiversityinHigherEducation Grading EarlyChildhoodEducation Outcomes-BasedEducation HeadStart PositiveBehavioralInterventionsandSupports HighSchools (PBIS) Kindergarten PositiveBehavioralInterventionsandSupports(PBIS): MiddleSchool ProcessConsiderations Preschool Principals PreschoolMentalHealth Reform ToddlerCenter Retention YoungAdulthood xii Tableofcontents AlternativeSchools Raven’sProgressiveMatrices CharterSchools SAT EarlyHeadStart ScreeningandEarlyWarningSigns MagnetSchools Stanford-BinetIntelligenceScale Montessori SystemofMulticulturalPluralisticAssessment ParochialSchools (SOMPA) PrivateSchools TEMAS(Tell-Me-A-Story)MulticulturalThematic ReggioEmilia ApperceptionTest Religious/EthnicSchools TestingandMeasurement Single-SexEducation UniversalNonverbalIntelligenceTest(UNIT) VocationalSchools WechslerIntelligenceScaleforChildren-IV Vouchers (WISC-IV) WaldorfSchools WechslerIntelligenceScaleforChildren-IV (WISC-IV)Spanish Assessment Woodcock-Johnson AchievementTests AssessmentofCulturallyDiverseChildren CommunityPartnerships AuthenticAssessment CollaborativeforAcademic,Social,andEmotional BilingualVerbalAbilityTests(BVAT) Learning(CASEL) BlackIntelligenceTestofCulturalHomogeneity CommunityApproachestoImproving (B.I.T.C.H.) ChildSuccess Children’sPersonalMeaningProfile(PMP-C) CommunityInterventionswithDiverseYouth CollegeBoard CommunityPsychology ComputerBasedTesting CommunityViolence CulturalMeasurementEquivalence EducationalPartnership Gf-GcModelofIntelligence School-CommunityMentalHealthCenters GlobalAssessmentofFunctioning(GAF) HighStakesTesting Counseling(Guidance/School) Intelligence/IntelligenceQuotient(IQ) Aggressiveness KaufmanAssessmentBatteryforChildren-Second Anxiety Edition(KABC-II) ChildhoodDepression LanguageDeficits CognitiveBehavioralTherapy(CBT) MultigroupEthnicIdentityMeasure(MEIM) ConductDisorder Myers-BriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI),Multicultural Counseling Applications CrimeinSchools NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP) CrisisIntervention NeuropsychologicalAssessment Cross-CulturalCompetenceinSchoolPsychologists’ NondiscriminatoryTesting Services NonverbalAssessment Cross-CulturalPsychology Norm-ReferencedTest(NRT) Cross-CulturalSchoolPsychology PersonalityTests:MinnesotaMultiphasicPersonality CuentoTherapy Inventory(MMPI)andMillonClinicalMultiaxial Delusion Inventory(MCMI) Desensitization Portfolios DisastersandDisasterPrevention PreschoolLanguageAssessmentInstrument(PLAI)vs. EatingDisorders AThematicVersion(PLAI-T)andPreschool FamilyFragmentation LanguageAssessmentInstrument-SecondVersion GriefCounseling (PLAI–2) Hypochondriasis ProjectiveTests ImpulsiveBehavior Racial/EthnicGroupDifferences Mania/Hypomania