Gerben Bruinsma David Weisburd Editors Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice 1 3 Reference Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice Gerben Bruinsma David Weisburd Editors Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice A–B With311Figuresand150Tables Editors GerbenBruinsma NetherlandsInstitutefortheStudyofCrimeandLawEnforcement(NSCR) Amsterdam,TheNetherlands VUUniversityAmsterdam Amsterdam,TheNetherlands DavidWeisburd DepartmentofCriminology,LawandSociety GeorgeMasonUniversity Fairfax,VA,USA FacultyofLaw TheHebrewUniversity Mt.Scopus,Jerusalem,Israel ISBN978-1-4614-5689-6 ISBN978-1-4614-5690-2(eBook) ISBN978-1-4614-5691-9(Printandelectronicbundle) DOI10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2 SpringerNewYorkHeidelbergDordrechtLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2013946647 #SpringerScience+BusinessMediaNewYork2014 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeor part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway, andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware, orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped.Exemptedfromthis legalreservationarebriefexcerptsinconnectionwithreviewsorscholarlyanalysisormaterial suppliedspecificallyforthepurposeofbeingenteredandexecutedonacomputersystem,for exclusiveusebythepurchaserofthework.Duplicationofthispublicationorpartsthereofis permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its currentversion,andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer.Permissionsfor usemaybeobtainedthroughRightsLinkattheCopyrightClearanceCenter.Violationsareliable toprosecutionundertherespectiveCopyrightLaw. 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Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Preface Introduction When we began our effort to outline and organize the Encyclopedia of CriminologyandCriminalJusticewithourdistinguishedAssociateEditors, wesetbeforeourselvesamajortaskthatwouldbedifferentfromthatofmost otherencyclopediasthatareproducedtodayinvariousfields.Welookedback inhistorytofindourtask.Wesoughttodefinetheparametersofthediscipline of criminology and criminal justice, in the spirit of the encyclopedias first developedinthe18thcentury.ThisEncyclopediawouldnotbeadictionaryof thefield,butacuttingedgestatementofknowledgeinthefieldatthistime. Crime and criminal justice are major dynamic issues in contemporary societies.Everysocietyisconfrontedwithvariationsincrimerates andhas to deal with large groups of crime places, offenders, and victims. Crimes appearinchangingimagesineverydaylifeandcriminaljusticeagencieshave tofindsolutionsforthesesocietalphenomena.Thismeansthatthescienceof criminology is important not just for scientists and scholars who want to develop basic knowledge and understand the causes of crime, but also to policymakersandpractitioners.Criminologyasadisciplinespansbothbasic and applied research questions, and criminology has been enriched by its ability to both provide scientific knowledge to practice and to raise critical questionsaboutthebasicprinciplesandeffectsofpolicyandpractice.There is aninternational communityofactiveproducers ofcriminological knowl- edgeineverycontinentatuniversities,researchinstitutes,andgovernmental offices. The globalization of criminological knowledge has increased the dissemination of criminological research and theory to all parts of the world.ThisEncyclopediaseekstosummarizethatbroadarrayofknowledge. Undergraduateandgraduatestudentsincriminologyandcriminaljustice are taught using general text books with brief sections on relevant topics. Further information is explored on the Internet, using Wikipedia texts for additional knowledge or for writing papers. These texts have not been reviewed by scholars in the field. The print and online versions of this Encyclopedia give students, researchers, policy makers, and practitioners directaccesstoareliablebodyofknowledgeontopicsthathavebeenwritten by experts in the discipline. Indeed, in this Encyclopedia it is often the originators of theories, practices, or methods that are writing the entries. Theseentrieswillgivestudentsandscholarsefficientandsolidinsightsinto theknowledgetheyneedfortheircourses. v vi Preface Goals ThisEncyclopediaofCriminologyandCriminalJusticepresentsthecurrent state of knowledge of this discipline. Like science in general, criminology expanded during the last two centuries, starting with the first geographic studies on the distribution of crime rates until new neurological knowledge ofoffendersandinnovativeforensictechniquestodetectperpetrators,andto evidence-basedtreatmentprogramsforseriousorfrequentoffendersorlocal governmental to private interventions in crime situations. We needed ten volumeswith579entriestodisplaytoday’scriminologyandcriminaljustice knowledge base. It represents our efforts to provide the reader with current state-of-the-artknowledgeincriminologyandcriminaljustice. The aim of the Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice is to supply a comprehensive reference tool for the field of criminology and criminal justicethatisbothcuttingedge andofvery highscientificquality. This ten volume work provides a complete and systematic coverage of this growing field that is unprecedented, as it is truly international and includes fields related to criminology, such as police science, forensics, and certain areasofpsychology.Eachentryoffersanextendeddescriptionofthetopic, relevantliterature,currentbaseofknowledge,andideasaboutwhatneedsto be studied in the future. The on-line version will be updated continuously after the first publication serving millions of students, researchers, policy makers,andpractitionersofallcontinents. DefiningtheDiscipline ThegoalofthisEncyclopediaistoprovideacomprehensivereferenceworkfor thefieldofcriminologyandcriminaljustice.Weworkedhard,meetingmul- tipletimeswithourAssociateEditors,toidentifywhatthecriticalareaswere, and what research existed that we could include in the Encyclopedia. The Encyclopediainthissense"definesthefield"throughitschoiceoforganization and entries. We aimed at identifying emerging ideas and trends, so that the workwillbetimely atpublication and afterwards. This Encyclopediacovers thefieldbroadly,andinternationally,andattemptstobeuptodateastorecent developments in research and practice in the field. This Encyclopedia is not adictionary,norakindofWikipediawithoutanyqualityassessment,andaims atcomprehensiveandcuttingedgeknowledgethatdefinesthecontoursofthe field of criminology and criminal justice. That is why we included the fast developing new fields of forensics, psychology of law, and investigative psychology.Thetenvolumescoverthefollowingbroadfieldsofcriminology andcriminaljustice(listedwiththeAssociateEditorsresponsible): Corrections and Criminal Justice Supervision in the Community (Doris MacKenzie) Courts,Sentencing,andtheJudicialSystem(LeslieSebba) PoliceandLawEnforcement(StephenMastrofski) Crimes,Criminals,andVictims(AlexPiquero) Preface vii CrimePlacesandSituations(CynthiaLum) ExplanationsforCriminalBehavior(SallySimpson) HistoryofCriminology(allAssociateEditorsandEditors-in-Chief) Data,Methods,andStatistics(ArjanBloklandandDanNagin) SocialInterventionsandPrevention(GwladysGillie´ron&MartinKillias) ForensicsandForensicScienceInvestigativePsychology(PeterNeyroud) PsychologyofLaw(KarenAmendola) Every sectiondefines anumber ofareasofresearch(a totalof111), and consequently a number of relevant topics or articles that are included as entries (579). The entries are arranged in alphabetical order. Each entry providesanoverviewofwhatiscovered,followedbyashortlistofsuggested readings and references. All entries have been reviewed, first by the Area Editors, then by the Associate Editors, and finally by the Editors-in-Chief. NotallofthearticlessubmittedcouldbeacceptedintotheEncyclopedia,asis thecasewithotheracademicworkthatisreviewed.Weverymuchappreciate theeffortsofallofourauthors,whohavetrulyproducedanimportantworkin criminologyandcriminaljustice. Acknowledgements Asthereadercanimagine,thistenvolumeEncyclopediaofCriminologyand Criminal Justice is a work that involves the collaborative efforts of many people. In the 18th century, Dennis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert published between 1751 and 1772 the first encyclopedia on science with the assistance of hundreds of scholars. It consisted of 28 volumes with 60,000 articles on all imaginable topics of the natural sciences. The editors themselvescontributed6,000articles.ThisEncyclopediaisalsoajointeffort ofmanypeople. When David Weisburd was approached by Springer, he invited Gerben Bruinsma to join him as Editor-in-Chief. We contributed equally to the Encyclopedia, explaining the alphabetical order of our names. We had the magnificentsupportofagroupof12AssociateEditors,allrenownedexperts intheirfields.Theyorganizedtheirsectionbydefiningtheareasofresearch andusedtheirextendedprofessionalnetworktocontactthe111AreaEditors. Weowethemverymuchfortheirefforts:KarenAmendola(PoliceFounda- tion), Arjan Blokland (NSCR), Gwladys Gillie´ron (Distance Learning Uni- versity Switzerland, Brig, Switzerland), Martin Killias (KRC Killias Research & Consulting SA), Cynthia Lum (George Mason University), Doris MacKenzie (Penn State University), Stephen Mastrofski (George Mason University), Daniel Nagin (Carnegie Mellon University), Peter Neyroud(CambridgeUniversity),AlexPiquero(TheUniversityofTexasat Dallas), Leslie Sebba (The Hebrew University), and Sally Simpson (UniversityofMaryland).Wealsowouldliketothankthe111AreaEditors whoselectedtheauthorsandreviewedthepapersintheirareas.Theirnames are listed separately in this Encyclopedia. Lastly, we are grateful to all our authorswhocontributedwithscholarlyentriestotheEncyclopedia.Itistheir viii Preface collective effort and expertise that has made the publication of Springer’s EncyclopediaofCriminologyandCriminalJusticeasuccessfulenterprise. Aspecialwordofgratitudeisforthestaffofthepublisher,Springer.Many people have contributed to the Encyclopedia from its inception through its production.Wethankthemallfortheirwonderfulwork.ButsomeSpringer staffdeservespecialmention.WelmoedSpahr,ExecutiveEditor,Socialand BehavioralSciences,andKatieChabalko,CriminologyEditor,supportedus fromthebeginningtotheendoftheprojectoftengoingmuchbeyondtheir obligationstoensuretheacademicqualityofthework.WithoutSaskiaEllis, theprojectmanager,thisprojectwouldneverhavebeenfinished,oratleast would not have come out in a timely manner. She was a power house in moving the Encyclopedia along, and worked closely with us in bringing this major project to completion. To the literally hundreds of people who workedonthisprojectwethankyouall,andhopethatyouareverypleased with the scope and quality of Springer’s Encyclopedia of Criminology and CriminalJustice. May2013 GerbenBruinsma NetherlandsInstitutefortheStudyof CrimeandLawEnforcement(NSCR) (Amsterdam,TheNetherlands)&VU UniversityAmsterdam(Amsterdam,TheNetherlands) DavidWeisburd DepartmentofCriminology,LawandSociety, GeorgeMasonUniversity(Fairfax,VA,USA)& FacultyofLaw,TheHebrewUniversity(Jerusalem,Israel) Editors-in-Chief Gerben Bruinsma Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement(NSCR),Amsterdam,TheNetherlands VUUniversityAmsterdam,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands Professor Dr. Gerben Bruinsma is, since 1999, director of the Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR) in Amsterdam, a national research institute of the National Organization for ScientificResearch(NWO).Heisalso,since2009,professorofenvironmen- tal criminology at VU University Amsterdam. In the past he has held posi- tions as professor of criminology at Twente University and Leiden University.HestudiedsociologyandcriminologyatUtrechtUniversityand finished his doctoral dissertation Crime as a Social Process: A Test of the DifferentialAssociationTheoryintheVersionofK-D-Opp attheRadboud University Nijmegen. In the 1990s he co-founded the International Police Institute at Twente University. He was president of the Dutch Society of Criminology and one of the founding fathers of the European Society of Criminology, editor or editorial board member of various journals, and has heldagreatnumberofadvisoryandboardpositionsinthefieldofpoliceand criminaljustice.In2009,hereceivedtheFredaAdlerDistinguishedInterna- tional Scholar Award of the Division of International Criminology of the American Society of Criminology (ASC). He has researched and published on juvenile delinquency, organised crime, spatial distributions of crime, police theory, and methodological issues. He has published more than 100 articles, 30 books, and 60 book chapters. His current interests are geographical,theoretical,andhistoricalcriminology. ix