ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CREATIVITY THIRD EDITION This page intentionally left blank ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CREATIVITY THIRD EDITION EDITORS IN CHIEF Steven Pritzker Saybrook University, Pasadena, CA, United States Mark Runco Southern Oregon University, Ashland, OR, United States VOLUME 1 Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,CambridgeMA02139,UnitedStates Copyright(cid:1)2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including photocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailson howtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchasthe CopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. 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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN978-0-12-815614-8 Forinformationonallpublicationsvisitourwebsite athttp://store.elsevier.com Publisher:OliverWalter AcquisitionEditor:BlerinaOsmanaj ContentProjectManager:GemmaTaft AssociateContentProjectManagers:EbinClintonandFizzaFathima Designer:ChristianBilbow EDITORIAL BOARD ArthurCropley University of Hamburg,Hamburg, Germany Vlad Glaveanu WebsterUniversity Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland Ning Hao East China Normal University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China MaciejKarwowski University of Wroclaw,Wroclaw, Poland AaronKozbelt BrooklynCollege, Brooklyn,NY, UnitedStates Weihua Niu Pace University, New York, NY, UnitedStates Roni Reiter-Palmon University of Nebraska atOmaha,Omaha, NE, UnitedStates Robert W. Weisberg Temple University,Philadelphia, PA, United States v This page intentionally left blank PREFACE The first two editions of The Encyclopedia of Creativity were enormously successful. They provided easily- accessible and trustworthy information about creativity and various topics related to creativity, such as inno- vation.Thesecondedition,publishedin2011,wasnameda2012OutstandingAcademicTitlebytheAmerican Library Association’s Choice publication. The 3rd edition was inspired by the vast amount of new research aboutcreativity.Thefieldisexpandingveryrapidly.Muchofthisresearchisrelatedtotheincreasedcomplexity ofeachofourlives.Creativityhelpseachofusdealwithsuchcomplexity.Italsohelpsbusinesses,schools,and other organizations as the demands placed on them move faster and becomes more urgent. In addition, creativity provides new answers to such difficult problems as climate change, limited resources, religious and territorialconflicts,andpoverty.ForthesereasonstheEncyclopediaofCreativityincludesarticlesthatdescribethe creativityof individuals as well as organizations. The Encyclopedia captures the full range of approaches to creativity. Creativity research is being conducted throughouttheworldinmanydifferentdisciplines,includingpsychology,artsandhumanities,healthsciences, education, and business. The global interest is reflected in the number of authors throughout the world who have contributed tothis edition as well as the topicscovered. SomecountriessuchasChina,Korea,SingaporeandNewZealandhavemadeunderstanding,teaching,and encouragingcreativitypartoftheirnationalgoals.Europeproclaimed2009theyearofcreativity.Theleadersof thesecountriesrecognizethattheirprimarynaturalresourceistheabilityoftheircitizensandorganizationsto developnewproductsandinnovativeconcepts.Ascompetitionbecomesmoreandmoreintense,thebusiness community in the United States is finally accepting the concept that creativity can contribute directly to the bottomline.ApollofCEOsintheUnitedStatesbyIBM’sInstituteforBusinessValueindicatedthatcreativityis the most important characteristic being sought in new executive hires. We have responded to the increased interest inthe business community by including more entries on organizational creativity. TheEncyclopediaofCreativityisdesignedtoinspirefurtherrecognitionofthepersonalaswellasprofessional benefitsthataccruefromencouragingcreativity.Weknow,forexample,thatindividualswhoaremorecreative arehealthierandmoreadaptive,andinsomeinstancesmayevenhavealongerlifeexpectancy.Wealsoknow thatmanyinnovationsandwaysofsolvingproblemshavealreadyledtoincrediblebenefits,suchascuresfor diseases,improved technologies, and higher living standardsfor billions ofpeople. Ifwewantamorecreativeworld,thenwemustconstructanenvironmentthatallowscreativitytoflourish. Thisrequiresknowledgethatcrossesdisciplines.Theincreasedquantityanddiversityofresearchcontinuesfor themostparttobefocusedonaspecificareaofinterest.Mostscientificresearchisstillreleasedonlyinacademic journals.Thereisstillnotabroadcross-fertilizationofknowledgethatenhancesthedevelopmentofnewideas. Oneoftheaxiomsincreativityresearchisthatbreakthroughsoftenoccurwheninformationorconceptsfrom one field are applied to a different one. Darwin’s theory of evolution was partially inspired by his reading Malthus’ theory of population growth and Lyell on geological change. Jean Piaget, noted developmental psychologist,borrowedheavilyfrombiologyandepistemology.Freudusedamedicalmodeltounderstandthe psyche. Our hope is that readers will roam outside their usual areas of interest in a search for new ways of thinking.Thecomprehensivenatureoftheencyclopediaoffersreaderstheopportunitytofindnewperspectives, whichwe hope will suggest freshinsights about themselves,theirwork, andtheirplace in the world. In the first edition we stated that there was enough known about creativity that it could be integrated into every level of our educational system. Unfortunately “teaching to the test” has become more prevalent in the United States while arts programs have been all too often dropped. We are obviously losing a great deal of thecreativepotentialonthisplanetbyleavingsomanyofourchildrenuneducatedandunabletocopewiththe vii viii Preface problems they face. The Encyclopedia continues to place an emphasis on education and cognition. It is our hopethatteachersattheelementaryandhighschoollevelwilllearnabouttheirowncreativityandhowtovalue andencouragestudents.Itisnotalwaysaneasytask,butitcanhelpenhanceandevensavethelivesofsome creativestudents who are at risk. There has been some progress. The increased recognition of the importance of creativity in education was exemplifiedbyitsinclusionasnumber8inthetop20competenciesforteachersbytheAmericanPsychological Association.A2019GalluppollintheUnitedStatesreportedthat“Eighty-sevenpercentofteachersand77%of parents agree that teaching approaches that inspire creativity in the learning process have a bigger payoff for students.” Improvementisalsoevidentatthecollegeandpost-graduatelevelswherecoursesincreativityaretaughtin many schools throughout the country. There is still a tremendous need for degree earning programs and specializations in creativity. The Torrance Center at The University of Georgia, Saybrook University, Buffalo State,andDrexelUniversityareamongtheschoolsthatcurrentlyallowaspecializationincreativitystudies.We hope that soon there will be many more universities and professional schools which include courses and specialties increativitystudies. Audience This Encyclopedia was designed for use by students of creativity, as well as researchers, teachers, scientists, coaches and consultants, architects and designers, trainers, managers, actors, writers, directors, painters and otherindividualsinthecreativearts,inventors,therapistsandotherprofessionalswhoutilizecreativityintheir work.Anyonewhoisinterestedinlearningmoreabouttheirowncreativityandthecreativeprocesscanbenefit fromthearticlespresentedhere.Noneofthisimpliesthattherearequickandeasyself-helpanswers-individual creativegrowthrequireswork,time,seriousthoughtandacommitmenttodeeperunderstandingoftheprocess. Still,creativitycanbefunanditaddstothequalityoflife.Creativitycanhelpusexperiencethehighestlevelsof involvement in work and play that ultimately leads to great joy. Readers are encouraged to follow their own interestsandinclinations in exploringthese volumes. Topics and Contents Creativityis oftenviewed as asyndromeor complex.Thisperspective is described invarious contributionsto thisvolume,asarethevariousprocessesthatarethoughttomakeuporcontributetocreativity.Otherentries focusonparticularmethodsanddisciplinaryapproaches.Infact,onesignificantdifferencebetweenthisedition andthelastoneisthatofsectionsdevotedtotheneurosciencesandtotechnologyandcreativity.Inaddition, thiseditionisorganizedasakindofhybrid,withoverarchingtopics,includingthetwojustmentioned,butalso with various articles subsumed under Measurement and Personality headings. Specific topics include the following: (cid:129) There are reviews of a number of domain-specific areas, such as acting, dance, expressive arts, film, food, music, religion, science, sports, theater, and writing. (cid:129) Creativityandeducationareexaminedinarticlesaboutthoughtprocesses,suchasdevelopmentaltrendsin creative abilities and potentials, the enhancement of creativity, intelligence, knowledge, play, prodigies, programs andcourses, talentand teaching creativity. (cid:129) Cognitiveaspectsofcreativitycanbeinvestigatedinarticlesaboutalteredandtransitionalstates,analogies, attention, cognitive style, divergent thinking, flow and optimal experience, metacognition, metaphors, problem-finding, problem-solving, and remote associates. (cid:129) Thoseinterestedinbusinessandorganizationalcreativitycanviewarticlesaboutadvertisingwithartcreative visuals, business/management, creativity coaching, creativity exercises, entrepreneurship, group dynamics, innovation, leadership, organizational culture, organizational development, teams, and training, among others. (cid:129) Manyarticlesexaminethecreativeprocessacrossdomainsincludingareassuchasdiscovery,emotion/affect, gender differences, incubation, inspiration, insight,noveltyand paradigm shifts. Preface ix (cid:129) Thecomplexinterrelationshipbetweensocietyandcreativityisexplicitlyexaminedinarticlesaboutawards, conformity and conventionality, the creative sector and class of society, cultural diversity, the dark side of creativity,East vs. West, networking, social psychology,war,zeitgeist, and others. (cid:129) Personal and interpersonal creativity is discussed in articles relating to collaboration, family, life stages, mentors, networking, personalcreativityand self-actualization. (cid:129) Becausetheencyclopediafocusesonscientificinformationaboutcreativity,therearealsoarticlesthatdiscuss conceptsofcreativity,definitionsofcreativity,expertise,longitudinalstudies,researchingart,artistsandart audiences,research methods,phenomenology research andqualitative research. (cid:129) Articles which look at theoretical perspectives include behavioral approaches, chaos theory, componential models, economic perspectives, the evolving systems approach, the four P’s of creativity, and implicit theories. (cid:129) The creative process is examined in contrarianism, climate for creativity, discovery, dreams, heuristics, invention, motivation/drive, multiplediscovery, novelty, time andrewards. (cid:129) Mental and physical health and creativity are reviewed in mental health: affective disorders, health, mad genius controversy, schizophreniaand psychosis, stress, suicide, and transforming illness andvisualart. (cid:129) Some subjects are grouped together in the Table of Contents. These clusters include the increasingly importantNeurosciences and Technology, as well as Personality andRegional Creativity. Morethananyotherkindofbookanencyclopediaisacollaborativeeffort.Wethankoureminentpanelof SubjectEditors:ArthurCropley,VladGlaveanu,NingHao,MaciejKarwowski,AaronKozbelt,WeihuaNui,Roni Reiter-Palmon, andRobertWeisberg. Mark A.Runco andStevenR. Pritzker, Editors in Chief