E NCYCLOPEDIA OF BODY IMAGE AND HUMAN APPEARANCE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF THOMAS CASH Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 32 Jamestown Road, London NW1 7BY, UK 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA Copyright � 2012 Elsevier Inc. 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Cash, PhD, is professor emeritus of psychology at Old Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia. His research concerns the influences of physical appearance and body image on human lives and psychosocial functioning, including topics such as body image development, assessment, and treatment, obesity, eating disorders, cosmetic surgery, appear- ance-altering conditions, and appearance stereotyping and discrimination. Dr. Cash has authored or coedited 8 books and published over 200 journal articles and book chapters. His most recent works are The Body Image Workbook: An Eight-Step Program for Learning to Like Your Looks (New Harbinger Publications, 2008) and Body Image: A Handbook of Science, Practice, and Prevention (with L. Smolak; Guilford Press, 2011). He developed an empirically supported cognitive-behavioral program for body image improvement and developed multiple validated assessments of specific facets of the body image construct. He is the founder and Editor-in-Chief of the Elsevier quarterly journal Body Image: An International Journal of Research. He is an elected Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science. Dr. Cash’s professional website is at www.body-images.com, and he currently resides in Naples, Florida. v ASSOCIATE EDITORS Eileen Anderson-Fye, EdD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio, and an assistant research anthropologist in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of California, Los Angeles. She completed interdisci­ plinary training in psychological and medical anthropology at Harvard University. Anderson-Fye has been conducting research on adolescent girls’ development and well-being in Belize for 15 years, with a particular focus on body image. More recently, she has been investigating college students’ psychiatric medication and mental health services usage in the United States and Canada. Anderson-Fye has published in major anthropology, psychology, psychiatry, and education journals. Sarah Grogan, PhD, is the director of the Centre for Health Psychology at Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK. She is the author of Body Image: Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women and Children, which is now in its second edition. Her research focuses on understanding the impact of body image on health-related behaviors such as smoking and anabolic steroid use, and the impact of aging on body image. Her recent work investigates the impact of exposure to age- appearance morphing technology on men and women’s smoking and sun exposure. She is a Chartered Psychologist and is registered to practice as a Health Psychologist and a Sport and Exercise Psychologist. She is on the editorial boards of several journals, including Body Image: An International Journal of Research. Marita P. McCabe is a professor of psychology at Deakin University, a position she has held for 18 years. During this time she has also held positions as associate dean (Research), head of school of psychology, and foundation director of the University Health and Wellbeing Research Priority Area. Her research over the past 15 years has focused on the sociocultural determinants of body image and obesity among males and females. She has conducted research in this area across the life span (from preschoolers to old age), and has been particularly interested in how these relationships vary for different cultural groups. This research has led to the development and publication of a scale to evaluate sociocultural influences on eating and exercise that has been translated by researchers into 10 different languages. She has over 250 publications in refereed journals and has obtained research funding to complete her research from the Australian Research Council, National Health and Medical Research Council, as well as Wellcome Trust. She is currently a member of a Parliamentary Advisory Committee to provide advice to the Victoria State Government on how to address body image concerns and obesity among young people. vii viii Associate Editors Nichola J. K. Rumsey is Vocational Training Charitable Trust (VTCT) professor of appearance research at UWE and co-director of the Centre for Appearance Research (CAR). She is also a consultant to the Department of Health. Following the completion of her PhD ‘Psychological Problems Associated with Facial Disfigurement’ in 1983, she has built an international reputation for her research and has published extensively in the field. She was awarded a personal chair by UWE in 2002. She was elected president of the Craniofacial Society of Great Britain and Ireland in 2003–2004 (the first psychologist to be elected to this position), and chair of the British Psychological Society’s Division of Health Psychology from 2005 to 2006. She was a member of the Royal College of Surgeons Expert Group on Face Transplantation from 2005 to 2008. She was awarded honorary membership of the British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons in 2009. David B. Sarwer, PhD, is an associate professor of psychology in psychiatry and surgery at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine as well as the director of Clinical Services at the Center for Weight and Eating Disorders. His research interests focus on the assessment and treatment of obesity. He is the principal or coprincipal investigator of various NIH-funded studies investigating the psychological aspects of bariatric surgery. He is also involved in studies of the treatment of obesity in primary care settings. He is a consultant to the Edwin and Fannie Gray Hall Center for Human Appearance at the University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, where he conducts research on the psychological aspects of cosmetic and reconstructive surgery. He has numerous publications in both areas of research. Clinically, Dr. Sarwer is the director of the Stunkard Weight Management Program and is actively involved in the Bariatric Surgery Program at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. He conducts behavioral/psychological evaluations of patients prior to surgery, and he treats individuals with eating or other psychological concerns after bariatric surgery. Linda Smolak, PhD (Temple University, 1980), is the professor emerita of psychology at Kenyon College. Her research focuses on the development of body image and disordered eating, particu­ larly as it relates to gendered life experiences. She has published numerous articles and several books on body image and eating disorders in children and adolescents. Most recently, she co-edited (with J. K. Thompson) Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity in Youth: Assessment, Prevention, and Treatment, 2nd edition (American Psychological Association, 2009) and (with Thomas F. Cash) Body Image, Second Edition: A Handbook of Science, Practice, and Prevention (Guilford, 2011). She is an associate editor for Body Image: An International Journal of Research and on the editorial board of Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention. Viren Swami is a reader at the Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, UK. His main research interests are on the psychology of interpersonal attraction, particularly from a crosscultural perspective. Other research interests include issues relating to body image, including the impact of body art on interpersonal perceptions, weight-based prejudice, and predictors of interest in cosmetic surgery. He is the author of The Missing Arms of Vénus de Milo and (with Adrian Furnham) The Psychology of Physical Attraction, and the editor of Evolutionary Psychology: A Critical Introduction. Associate Editors ix J. Kevin Thompson, PhD, is a professor of psychology in the department of psychology at the University of South Florida. He has authored, coauthored, edited, or coedited nine books pertinent to body image, including Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image Disturbance (American Psychological Association, 1999) and The Muscular Ideal: Psychological, Social, and Medical Perspectives (American Psychological Association, 2007). He has authored more than 150 journal articles and 30 chapters in the areas of body image, eating disorders, and obesity. He is an associate editor of Body Image: An International Journal of Research. Dr. Thompson’s research interests include risk factors, measurement issues, and intervention studies related to body image. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS L Alfano CM Bulik Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel NY, USA Hill, NC, USA M Pathy Allen NL Burke Photographer, New York, NY, USA University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA EP Anderson-Fye ML Butryn Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA V Aspen L Byrne Stanford University School of Medicine, Sunnyvale, CA, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia USA K Callahan R Ata University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA USA JH Baker RM Calogero The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Virginia Wesleyan College, Norfolk, VA, USA Hill, NC, USA TF Cash RL Bassett Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada S Chait DG Bazzini VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA CT, USA CB Becker A Clarke Trinity University, San Antonio, TX, USA Royal Free Hospital, London, UK JM Behel MC Coletta Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA IL, USA CE Crerand SY Berkson The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical USA; Center, Bronx, NY, USA Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA JN Biesen University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA, USA JH Crowther Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA WO Bockting University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, L Curtin MN, USA Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA I Bojorquez EA Daniels El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Tijuana, Mexico University of Oregon, Bend, OR, USA MS Boroughs C Davis University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA York University, Toronto, ON, Canada xi